Decision-Making and Management of Tarsal Coalition in the Young Adult Patient: A Critical Analysis Review.

¼ Tarsal coalitions most commonly affect the calcaneonavicular and talocalcaneal joints in up to 13% of the general population. They alter the mechanics of the subtalar joint, limiting inversion and eversion, and place excessive stress on neighboring joints causing pain, recurrent ankle sprains, and/or progressive pes planus during the adolescent growth spurt.¼ While many coalitions are identified on radiographs, advanced imaging with computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging is sometimes required. These advanced imaging modalities also serve an essential role for surgical planning to quantify coalition involvement, identify fibrous or cartilaginous coalitions, and aid in determining the degree of deformity within the foot.¼ Surgical treatment is reserved for feet with persistent activity-related pain not relieved by prolonged attempts at nonoperative management, which include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, shoe orthotics, and periods of non-weight-bearing in a cast. These conservative modalities may be successful in up to 85% of cases.¼ For adolescent patients, recent surgical options attempt to avoid arthrodesis and focus on coalition resection and interposition grafting with or without deformity correction. The ultimate decision is based on the location of the pain, the size and histology of the coalition, the health of the posterior subtalar facet, the degree of flatfoot deformity, and the presence of degenerative changes in the subtalar and/or adjacent joints.¼ While many studies focus on subtalar motion and gait kinematics, the critical outcomes remain pain relief and future need for arthrodesis, which may be related not only to resection of the coalition but assessment of deformity, including after the resection has been performed.

Intertrochanteric Osteotomies in Children and Adolescents: Principles of Proximal Femoral Deformity Correction.

Intertrochanteric osteotomies are used to correct a variety of congenital and acquired deformities of the proximal femur in children and adolescents. Varus, valgus, flexion, extension, or rotational osteotomies at the intertrochanteric level can be used to restore normal alignment of the proximal femur, increase congruency and stability of the hip joint, facilitate healing or remodeling of the femoral head and neck, redirect the articular surface, and improve functional limb position in the case of soft-tissue contractures. The steps necessary to assess proximal femoral deformity and plan the appropriate osteotomy are described along with indications and long-term considerations.

Partial tibial nerve transfer for foot drop from deep peroneal palsy: Lessons from three pediatric cases.

Peroneal nerve palsy with resultant foot drop has significant impacts on gait and quality of life. Traditional management includes ankle-foot-orthosis, tendon transfer, and arthrodesis-each with certain disadvantages. While nerve transfers for peroneal nerve injury have been reported in adults, with variable results, they have not been described in the pediatric population. We report the use of partial tibial nerve transfer for foot drop from deep peroneal nerve palsy in three pediatric patients. The first sustained a partial common peroneal nerve laceration and underwent transfer of a single tibial nerve branch to deep peroneal nerve 7 months after injury. Robust extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus reinnervation was obtained without satisfactory tibialis anterior function. The next patient sustained a thigh laceration with partial sciatic nerve injury and underwent transfer of two tibial nerve branches directly to the tibialis anterior component of deep peroneal nerve 9 months after injury. The final patient sustained a blast injury to the posterior knee and similarly underwent a double fascicular transfer directly to tibialis anterior 4 months after injury. The latter two patients obtained sufficient strength (MRC 4-5) at 1 year to discontinue orthosis. In all patients, we used flexor hallucis longus and/or flexor digitorum longus branches as donors without postoperative loss of toe flexion. Overall, our experience suggests that early double fascicular transfer to an isolated tibialis anterior target, combined with decompression, could produce robust innervation. Further study and collaboration are needed to devise new ways to treat lower extremity nerve palsies.

Clubfoot pathoanatomy-biomechanics of deformity correction: a narrative review.

Clubfoot is a common and complex, multi-segmental, 3-dimensional, congenital foot deformity. The segmental deformities have been recognized for millennia. They are cavus of the forefoot/midfoot, adductus of the midfoot, varus of the hindfoot, and equinus of the ankle, often referred to by the acronym CAVE. However, description of the deformities and their correction have varied over time with changes in consensus terminology for foot deformities and the understanding of foot biomechanics. In this narrative review, the most current terminology for foot deformities and understanding of foot biomechanics are applied to the clubfoot. The concept of the calcaneopedal unit (CPU) is applied to the in-depth discussion and understanding of clubfoot for perhaps the first time in the English language literature. Of the 4 basic clubfoot deformities, cavus and adductus are static structural deformities within the CPU, i.e., all bones of the foot except the talus. Varus is a restricted dynamic deformity between the CPU and the talus. Equinus is a restricted dynamic deformity in the ankle joint between the talus and the tibia. Understanding the CPU concept improves ones understanding of clubfoot deformities and the rationale for treatment techniques. Consensual agreement on the terms used to define interosseous relationships and motions in the foot improves communication. Finally, this narrative review highlights the histologic and biologic changes that occur in collagen and cartilage during clubfoot deformity correction to provide further understanding and rationale for treatment.

Design and descriptive data of the randomized Clubfoot Foot Abduction Brace Length of Treatment Study (FAB24).

The aim of this study was to describe the design and baseline characteristics of participants enrolled in the prospective randomized-controlled Clubfoot Foot Abduction Brace Length of Treatment Study (FAB24). Foot abduction bracing is currently the standard of care for preventing clubfoot relapse. Current recommendations include full-time bracing for the first 3 months and then 8-12 h a day for 4 years; however, the optimal length of bracing is not known. The FAB24 trial is a clinical randomized study to determine the effectiveness of 2- versus 4-year foot abduction bracing. Participant enrollment for FAB24 was conducted at eight sites in North America and included enrollment and randomization of 139 participants with isolated clubfoot. This clinical trial will generate evidence-based data that will inform and improve patient care.

What's New in Pediatric Flatfoot?

BACKGROUND: Children with flatfeet are frequently referred to pediatric orthopaedic clinics. Most of these patients are asymptomatic and require no treatment. Care must be taken to differentiate patients with flexible flatfeet from those with rigid deformity that may have underlying pathology and have need of treatment. Rigid flatfeet in infants may be attributable to a congenital vertical talus (CVT); whereas those in older children and adolescents may be due to an underlying tarsal coalition. We performed a review of the recent literature regarding evaluation and management of pediatric flatfeet to discuss new findings and suggest areas where further research is needed. METHODS: We searched the PubMed database for all papers related to the treatment of pediatric flatfoot, tarsal coalition, and CVT published from January 1, 2011 to December 31, 2014, yielding 85 English language papers. RESULTS: A total of 18 papers contributed new or interesting findings. CONCLUSIONS: The pediatric flexible flatfoot (FFF) remains poorly defined, making the understanding, study, and treatment of the condition extremely difficult.Pediatric FFF is often unnecessarily treated. There is very little evidence for the efficacy of nonsurgical intervention to affect the shape of the foot or to influence potential long-term disability for children with FFF. The treatment of tarsal coalition remains challenging, but short-term and intermediate-term outcome studies are satisfactory, whereas long-term outcome studies are lacking. Management of the associated flatfoot deformity may be as important as management of the coalition itself. The management of CVT is still evolving; however, early results of less invasive treatment methods seem promising. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 4-literature review.

Subtalar coalition in pediatrics.

Subtalar tarsal coalition is an autosomal dominant developmental maldeformation that affects between 2% and 13% of the population. The most common locations are between the calcaneus and navicular and between the talus and calcaneus. If prolonged attempts at nonoperative management do not relieve the pain, surgery is indicated. The exact surgical technique(s) should be based on the location of the pain, the size and histology of the coalition, the health of the other joints and facets, the degree of foot deformity, and the excursion of the heel cord.

Selective hemiepiphyseodesis for patellar instability with associated genu valgum.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Patellar instability limits activity and promotes arthritis. Correcting genu valgum with selective hemiepiphyseodesis can treat patellar instability. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed 26 knees with patellar instability and associated genu valgum that underwent hemiepiphyseodesis. RESULTS: Average anatomic lateral distal femoral angle (aLDFA) significantly corrected. Symptoms improved in all patients. All competitive athletes returned to sports. One complication occurred. CONCLUSIONS: In genu valgum, the patella seeks an abnormal mechanical axis, resulting in patellar instability. By correcting the mechanical axis with hemiepiphyseodesis, patellar instability symptoms improve and patients return to sports. Complications are rare. Selective hemiepiphyseodesis is recommended when treating patellar instability with associated genu valgum.

Injection-induced gluteus muscle contractures: diagnosis with the "reverse Ober test" and surgical management.

BACKGROUND: Adoption rates are increasing in the United States and other developed countries. A large proportion of adopted children have been found to have unsuspected medical diagnoses, including orthopedic problems. One condition, termed injection-induced gluteus maximus contracture, has been previously described in several case series and can be difficult to diagnose if unfamiliar with this condition. By reviewing the etiology and pathoanatomy of this problem, as well as the typical examination findings, including the near-pathognomonic-positive "reverse Ober test," treating providers will be better prepared to recognize and properly treat this condition. METHODS: This is a retrospective review of 4 patients treated at our institution for injection-induced gluteus maximus contracture. Patient history, physical examination findings, and treatment outcomes were recorded. All had undergone surgical treatment through a longitudinal incision along the posterior margin of the iliotibial band, with division of thickened, contracted gluteus tissue down to the ischial tuberosity. RESULTS: All 4 of the patients were adopted from orphanages in developing countries. Chief complaints of the patients varied, but physical examination findings were very consistent. Three of the 4 patients had undergone rotational osteotomies for presumed femoral retroversion before their diagnosis and treatment for injection-induced gluteus maximus contracture. All patients had concave, atrophic buttock contours and numerous punctate buttock scars. All walked with an out-toed gait and had marked apparent femoral retroversion. Each patient was found to have full hip adduction when the hip was extended but a hip abduction contracture when the hip was flexed. This finding of increasing abduction as an extended/adducted hip is flexed to 90 degrees is described as a positive "reverse Ober test." After surgical treatment, all hips could adduct to neutral from full extension to full flexion. CONCLUSIONS: Although common in some countries, such as Russia and China, injection-induced gluteus muscle contractures are seldom seen in the United States and other developed countries. Diagnosis of this condition can be difficult leading to inappropriate treatment. Knowledge of the clinical presentation typical of a gluteus contracture and of the pathognomonic finding of a "reverse Ober test" can facilitate an effective surgical procedure to correct the associated functional impairment. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV: retrospective case series.

Flatfoot deformity in children and adolescents: surgical indications and management.

Most children with flatfeet are asymptomatic and will never require treatment. In general, flatfoot deformity is flexible and will not cause pain or disability; it is a normal variant of foot shape. Thus, it is essential to reassure and educate patients and parents. A flatfoot with a contracture of the Achilles tendon may be painful. In these cases, a stretching program may help relieve pain. Scant convincing evidence exists to support the use of inserts or shoe modifications for effective relief of symptoms, and there is no evidence that those devices change the shape of the foot. The surgeon must be vigilant to identify the rare rigid flatfoot. Indications for flatfoot surgery are strict: failure of prolonged nonsurgical attempts to relieve pain that interferes with normal activities and occurs under the medial midfoot and/or in the sinus tarsi. In nearly all cases, an associated contracture of the heel cord is present. Osteotomies with supplemental soft-tissue procedures are the best proven approach for management of [corrected] flatfoot.

Comparison of structural bone autografts and allografts in pediatric foot surgery.

BACKGROUND: Autogenous bone has been the gold standard as the source for structural bone-graft material due to its osteogenic potential, nonimmunogenicity, and efficiency of incorporation. However, donor-site morbidity can lead to significant problems. Allograft bone is readily available and obviates the risks associated with bone-graft harvesting. However, its use raises concerns of disease transmission, infection, slower incorporation, and immunologic reaction. Despite these concerns, allograft use has become widespread. The few comparative studies of the 2 graft types used in spine and tumor surgery are promising. We sought to compare the speed and completeness of graft incorporation and the relative safety of autograft and allograft structural bone in pediatric foot surgery. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed on 161 children who underwent foot surgery requiring 182 allografts and 63 autografts from 1982 to 1994. Follow-up ranged from 2 to 146 months (mean=51.4). RESULTS: Graft-host union, defined as radiographic evidence of healing with a clinical lack of tenderness at graft insertion site, occurred within 12 weeks in both groups. Average time to healing in both groups was just over 7 weeks. In the allograft group, there was 1 nonunion, 3 graft displacements due to technical error requiring reoperation, and 1 partial displacement that did not require reoperation. All of these complications can be attributed to technique rather than to graft type. There were no infections or instances of disease transmission. There were no reported complications in the autograft group. CONCLUSIONS: Small, structural bone allografts provide a safe, efficient, and cost-effective alternative to iliac crest bone autograft in pediatric foot surgery. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE: Level III, therapeutic study, retrospective comparative study.

Talocalcaneal tarsal coalitions and the calcaneal lengthening osteotomy: the role of deformity correction.

BACKGROUND: Surgical resection of persistently painful talocalcaneal tarsal coalitions may not reliably relieve symptoms in patients with large coalitions associated with excessive hindfoot valgus deformity and subtalar posterior facet narrowing. Since 1991, calcaneal lengthening osteotomy, with or without coalition resection, has been used at our institution to relieve symptoms and to preserve motion at the talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joints. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the records for eight patients with thirteen painful talocalcaneal tarsal coalitions who had undergone a calcaneal lengthening osteotomy for deformity correction with or without coalition resection between 1991 and 2005. Preoperative and postoperative clinical, radiographic, and computed tomographic records were reviewed. The duration of clinical follow-up ranged from two to fifteen years. RESULTS: Calcaneal lengthening osteotomy fully corrected the valgus deformity and provided short-to-intermediate term pain relief for the five patients (nine feet) in whom the talocalcaneal tarsal coalition was unresectable. The patient with resectable coalitions but excessive valgus deformities underwent calcaneal lengthening osteotomies along with coalition resections and had excellent deformity correction and pain relief in both feet. One of the two patients who underwent calcaneal lengthening osteotomy years after coalition resection had excellent correction and pain relief. The other patient had a coincident calcaneonavicular coalition and severe degenerative arthritis in the talonavicular joint. He underwent concurrent arthrodesis of the talonavicular joint and, although he had excellent deformity correction, had persistent pain. All feet underwent concurrent gastrocnemius or Achilles tendon lengthening. CONCLUSIONS: It is generally accepted that resection is the treatment of choice for an intractably painful small talocalcaneal tarsal coalition that is associated with a wide, healthy posterior facet and minimal valgus deformity of the hindfoot. Although triple arthrodesis has been recommended for those who do not meet all three criteria, the present study suggests that an algorithmic treatment approach is justified. Treatment of the valgus deformity appears to be as important as that of the coalition. Calcaneal lengthening osteotomy with gastrocnemius or Achilles tendon lengthening is effective for correcting deformity and relieving pain in rigid flatfeet, just as it is in flexible flatfeet.

EXT2-positive multiple hereditary osteochondromas with some features suggestive of metachondromatosis.

Metachondromatosis (MC) and hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO) are thought to be distinct disorders, each with characteristic x-ray and clinical features. Radiographic differences are the current mainstay of differential diagnosis. Both disorders are autosomal dominant, but the majority of patients with HMO have mutations in EXT-1 or EXT 2 genes. The genetic defect in MC is unknown, although recent studies indicate a possible identifiable mutation. The cancer risk in HMO is thought to be greater than in MC, although the small number of cases make such conjecture imprecise. The purpose of this report is to review existing literature and examine whether radiographic findings in HMO and MC can be reliable as a stand-alone means of differential diagnosis. Three members of a multi-generational family with an autosomal dominant exostosis syndrome were studied by clinical examination and complete skeletal survey. The roentgenographic characteristics of all osteochondromas were analyzed. The father underwent gene sequencing for EXT-1 and EXT-2, which revealed a novel EXT-2 mutation. Typical radiographic and clinical findings of both HMO and MC were seen throughout the family as well as in individuals. These family study findings contradict many of the long-standing clinical and x-ray diagnostic criteria for differentiating MC from HMO. The phenotypic crossover between the two conditions in this family, and results of genetic analysis, suggest that in the absence of a definitive genetic diagnosis, radiographic and clinical diagnosis of past and future cases HMO and MC may not be as reliable as previously assumed.

Flexible flatfoot in children and adolescents.

Flexible flatfoot is a normal foot shape that is present in most infants and many adults. The arch elevates spontaneously in most children during the first decade of life. There is no evidence that a longitudinal arch can be created in a child's foot by any external forces or devices. Flexible flatfoot with a short Achilles tendon, in contrast to simple flexible flatfoot, is known to cause pain and disability in some adolescents and adults. Joint-preserving, deformity-correcting surgery is indicated in flexible flatfeet with short Achilles tendons when conservative measurements fail to relieve pain under the head of the plantar flexed talus or in the sinus tarsi area. Osteotomy is the fundamental and central procedure of choice. In almost all cases, Achilles tendon lengthening is required. In some cases, rigid supination deformity of the forefoot is present, requiring identification and concurrent treatment.

The association between idiopathic clubfoot and increased internal hip rotation.

UNLABELLED: Clinical observation suggests the coexistence of increased internal hip rotation in limbs with clubfoot, thereby providing an additional, and perhaps overlooked, site of deformity to account for an intoeing gait in these limbs. Furthermore, assuming a genetic basis exists for exaggerated femoral and/or acetabular anteversion, which are the possible cause(s) for increased internal hip rotation, this association could provide another key to the multifactorial etiology of clubfoot. We asked whether such an association exists and retrospectively reviewed 114 children (178 clubfeet). We then tested for an association between clubfoot and increased internal hip rotation. These rotational measurements were compared with published normative data on torsion in children. In cases of unilateral clubfoot, an additional analysis compared the rotational profiles of the affected and unaffected extremities. Increased internal hip rotation occurred more frequently in limbs with idiopathic clubfoot. In patients with unilateral clubfoot, the affected extremities manifested greater internal hip rotation than the unaffected extremities, whereas the latter showed no difference in internal hip rotation compared with normative values. Clinical evaluation of intoeing in children with a history of clubfoot should include a rotational profile to determine the level(s) of deformity and guide therapeutic intervention. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III, prognostic study (case control study). See Guidelines for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Congenital ingrown toenail of the hallux.

BACKGROUND: Ingrown toenail in the infant is a rare entity that has only occasionally been discussed in the medical literature. At birth, or soon thereafter, children present with bilateral ingrown hallux toenails notable for pain, tenderness, erythema, purulence, and hypertrophy of the skin and fat of the distal end of the great toes extending over the dorsum of the nail plates. Inflammatory and infectious granulation tissue develops with time. METHODS: We present a case series of 4 patients with bilateral congenitally ingrown hallux toenails. Conservative and surgical treatment modalities were used, with 3 of 4 patients undergoing wedge resection of the hypertrophic soft tissues at the distal end of the toes. RESULTS: There were excellent results in both feet of all patients with resolution of the condition and no recurrences in any patient. Clinical photos are provided for all patients. CONCLUSIONS: Ingrown toenail in the infant is a rare entity that occasionally requires surgical treatment. Excellent results are expected with wedge resection of the hypertrophic soft tissues.