Back-Gate GaN Nanowire-Based FET Device for Enhancing Gas Selectivity at Room Temperature.

In this work, a TiO2-coated GaN nanowire-based back-gate field-effect transistor (FET) device was designed and implemented to address the well-known cross-sensitive nature of metal oxides. Even though a two-terminal TiO2/GaN chemiresistor is highly sensitive to NO2, it suffers from lack of selectivity toward NO2 and SO2. Here, a Si back gate with C-AlGaN as the gate dielectric was demonstrated as a tunable parameter, which enhances discrimination of these cross-sensitive gases at room temperature (20 °C). Compared to no bias, a back-gate bias resulted in a significant 60% increase in NO2 response, whereas the increase was an insignificant 10% in SO2 response. The differential change in gas response was explained with the help of a band diagram, derived from the energetics of molecular models based on density functional theory (DFT). The device geometries in this work are not optimized and are intended only for proving the concept.

Reliable anatase-titania nanoclusters functionalized GaN sensor devices for UV assisted NO2 gas-sensing in ppb level.

Internet of Things applications require ultra-low power, integrable into electronic circuits and mini-sized chemical sensors for automated remote air quality monitoring system. In this work, a highly sensitive and selective detection of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has been demonstrated by functionalizing gallium nitride (GaN) submicron wire with titania (TiO2) nanoclusters. The two-terminal GaN/TiO2 sensor device was fabricated by top-down approach. The photo-enabled sensing makes it possible to operate this sensor at room-temperature, resulting in a significant reduction in operating power. The GaN/TiO2 sensor was able to detect NO2 concentrations as low as 10 ppb in air at room temperature (20 °C) with a quick response-recovery process. The sensor was found highly selective toward NO2 against other interfering gases, such as ethanol (C2H5OH), ammonia (NH3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2). Furthermore, principal component analysis has been performed to address the cross-sensitive nature of TiO2. The sensor device exhibited excellent long-term stability at room temperature and humidity and was quite stable and reliable at various environmental conditions. Continuous exposure of the device to siloxane for a one-month period has shown a very small degradation in sensor response to NO2. Finally, interaction of NO2 gas molecules with the GaN/TiO2 sensor has been modeled and explained under the light of energy band diagram. The photoinduced oxygen desorption and subsequent charge transfer between TiO2 nanoclusters and NO2 molecules modulate the depletion region width within the GaN, thus contributing to a high performance NO2 gas sensing.

An Antimony Selenide Molecular Ink for Flexible Broadband Photodetectors.

The need for low-cost high-performance broadband photon detection with sensitivity in the near infrared (NIR) has driven interest in new materials that combine high absorption with traditional electronic infrastructure (CMOS) compatibility. Here, we demonstrate a facile, low-cost and scalable, catalyst-free one-step solution-processed approach to grow one-dimensional Sb2Se3 nanostructures directly on flexible substrates for high-performance NIR photodetectors. Structural characterization and compositional analyses reveal high-quality single-crystalline material with orthorhombic crystal structure and a near-stoichiometric Sb/Se atomic ratio. We measure a direct band gap of 1.12 eV, which is consistent with predictions from theoretical simulations, indicating strong NIR potential. The fabricated metal-semiconductor-metal photodetectors exhibit fast response (on the order of milliseconds) and high performance (responsivity ~ 0.27 A/W) as well as excellent mechanical flexibility and durability. The results demonstrate the potential of molecular-ink-based Sb2Se3 nanostructures for flexible electronic and broadband optoelectronic device applications.

UV-assisted room-temperature chemiresistive NO2 sensor based on TiO2 thin film.

TiO2 thin film based, chemiresistive sensors for NO2 gas which operate at room temperature under ultraviolet (UV) illumination have been demonstrated in this work. The rf-sputter deposited and post-annealed TiO2 thin films have been characterized by atomic force microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction to obtain surface morphology, chemical state, and crystal structure, respectively. UV-vis absorption spectroscopy and Tauc plots show the optical properties of the TiO2 films. Under UV illumination, the NO2 sensing performance of the TiO2 films shows a reversible change in resistance at room-temperature. The observed change in electrical resistivity can be explained by the modulation of surface-adsorbed oxygen. This work is the first demonstration of a facile TiO2 sensor for NO2 analyte that operates at room-temperature under UV illumination.

Tunable Ultraviolet Photoresponse in Solution-Processed p-n Junction Photodiodes Based on Transition-Metal Oxides.

Solution-processed p-n heterojunction photodiodes have been fabricated based on transition-metal oxides in which NiO and ternary Zn(1-x)Mg(x)O (x = 0-0.1) have been employed as p-type and n-type semiconductors, respectively. Composition-related structural, electrical, and optical properties are also investigated for all the films. It has been observed that the bandgap of Zn(1-x)Mg(x)O films can be tuned between 3.24 and 3.49 eV by increasing Mg content. The fabricated highly visible-blind p-n junction photodiodes show an excellent rectification ratio along with good photoresponse and quantum efficiency under ultraviolet (UV) illumination. With an applied reverse bias of 1 V and depending on the value of x, the maximum responsivity of the devices varies between 0.22 and 0.4 A/W and the detectivity varies between 0.17 × 10(12) and 2.2 × 10(12) cm (Hz)(1/2)/W. The photodetectors show an excellent UV-to-visible rejection ratio. Compositional nonuniformity has been observed locally in the alloyed films with x = 0.1, which is manifested in photoresponse and X-ray analysis data. This paper demonstrates simple solution-processed, low cost, band tunable photodiodes with excellent figures of merit operated under low bias.

Self-powered p-NiO/n-ZnO heterojunction ultraviolet photodetectors fabricated on plastic substrates.

A self-powered ultraviolet (UV) photodetector (PD) based on p-NiO and n-ZnO was fabricated using low-temperature sputtering technique on indium doped tin oxide (ITO) coated plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrates. The p-n heterojunction showed very fast temporal photoresponse with excellent quantum efficiency of over 63% under UV illumination at an applied reverse bias of 1.2 V. The engineered ultrathin Ti/Au top metal contacts and UV transparent PET/ITO substrates allowed the PDs to be illuminated through either front or back side. Morphology, structural, chemical and optical properties of sputtered NiO and ZnO films were also investigated.

High-performing visible-blind photodetectors based on SnO2/CuO nanoheterojunctions.

We report on the significant performance enhancement of SnO2 thin film ultraviolet (UV) photodetectors (PDs) through incorporation of CuO/SnO2p-n nanoscale heterojunctions. The nanoheterojunctions are self-assembled by sputtering Cu clusters that oxidize in ambient to form CuO. We attribute the performance improvements to enhanced UV absorption, demonstrated both experimentally and using optical simulations, and electron transfer facilitated by the nanoheterojunctions. The peak responsivity of the PDs at a bias of 0.2 V improved from 1.9 A/W in a SnO2-only device to 10.3 A/W after CuO deposition. The wavelength-dependent photocurrent-to-dark current ratio was estimated to be ~ 592 for the CuO/SnO2 PD at 290 nm. The morphology, distribution of nanoparticles, and optical properties of the CuO/SnO2 heterostructured thin films are also investigated.

Electrical transport and low-frequency noise in chemical vapor deposited single-layer MoS2 devices.

We have studied temperature-dependent (77-300 K) electrical characteristics and low-frequency noise (LFN) in chemical vapor deposited (CVD) single-layer molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) based back-gated field-effect transistors (FETs). Electrical characterization and LFN measurements were conducted on MoS2 FETs with Al2O3 top-surface passivation. We also studied the effect of top-surface passivation etching on the electrical characteristics of the device. Significant decrease in channel current and transconductance was observed in these devices after the Al2O3 passivation etching. For passivated devices, the two-terminal resistance variation with temperature showed a good fit to the activation energy model, whereas for the etched devices the trend indicated a hopping transport mechanism. A significant increase in the normalized drain current noise power spectral density (PSD) was observed after the etching of the top passivation layer. The observed channel current noise was explained using a standard unified model incorporating carrier number fluctuation and correlated surface mobility fluctuation mechanisms. Detailed analysis of the gate-referred noise voltage PSD indicated the presence of different trapping states in passivated devices when compared to the etched devices. Etched devices showed weak temperature dependence of the channel current noise, whereas passivated devices exhibited near-linear temperature dependence.

Methanol, ethanol and hydrogen sensing using metal oxide and metal (TiO(2)-Pt) composite nanoclusters on GaN nanowires: a new route towards tailoring the selectivity of nanowire/nanocluster chemical sensors.

We demonstrate a new method for tailoring the selectivity of chemical sensors using semiconductor nanowires (NWs) decorated with metal and metal oxide multicomponent nanoclusters (NCs). Here we present the change of selectivity of titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) nanocluster-coated gallium nitride (GaN) nanowire sensor devices on the addition of platinum (Pt) nanoclusters. The hybrid sensor devices were developed by fabricating two-terminal devices using individual GaN NWs followed by the deposition of TiO(2) and/or Pt nanoclusters (NCs) using the sputtering technique. This paper present the sensing characteristics of GaN/(TiO(2)-Pt) nanowire-nanocluster (NWNC) hybrids and GaN/(Pt) NWNC hybrids, and compare their selectivity with that of the previously reported GaN/TiO(2) sensors. The GaN/TiO(2) NWNC hybrids showed remarkable selectivity to benzene and related aromatic compounds, with no measurable response for other analytes. Addition of Pt NCs to GaN/TiO(2) sensors dramatically altered their sensing behavior, making them sensitive only to methanol, ethanol and hydrogen, but not to any other chemicals we tested. The GaN/(TiO(2)-Pt) hybrids were able to detect ethanol and methanol concentrations as low as 100 nmol mol(-1) (ppb) in air in approximately 100 s, and hydrogen concentrations from 1 µmol mol(-1) (ppm) to 1% in nitrogen in less than 60 s. However, GaN/Pt NWNC hybrids showed limited sensitivity only towards hydrogen and not towards any alcohols. All these hybrid sensors worked at room temperature and are photomodulated, i.e. they responded to analytes only in the presence of ultraviolet (UV) light. We propose a qualitative explanation based on the heat of adsorption, ionization energy and solvent polarity to explain the observed selectivity of the different hybrids. These results are significant from the standpoint of applications requiring room-temperature hydrogen sensing and sensitive alcohol monitoring. These results demonstrate the tremendous potential for tailoring the selectivity of the hybrid nanosensors for a multitude of environmental and industrial sensing applications.

Homoepitaxial n-core: p-shell gallium nitride nanowires: HVPE overgrowth on MBE nanowires.

We present the homoepitaxial growth of p-type, magnesium doped gallium nitride shells by use of halide vapor phase epitaxy (HVPE) on n-type gallium nitride nanowires grown by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Scanning electron microscopy shows clear dopant contrast between the core and shell of the nanowire. The growth of magnesium doped nanowire shells shows little or no effect on the lattice parameters of the underlying nanowires, as measured by x-ray diffraction (XRD). Photoluminescence measurements of the nanowires show the appearance of sub-bandgap features in the blue and the ultraviolet, indicating the presence of acceptors. Finally, electrical measurements confirm the presence of electrically active holes in the nanowires.

Highly selective GaN-nanowire/TiO2-nanocluster hybrid sensors for detection of benzene and related environment pollutants.

Nanowire-nanocluster hybrid chemical sensors were realized by functionalizing gallium nitride (GaN) nanowires (NWs) with titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) nanoclusters for selectively sensing benzene and other related aromatic compounds. Hybrid sensor devices were developed by fabricating two-terminal devices using individual GaN NWs followed by the deposition of TiO(2) nanoclusters using RF magnetron sputtering. The sensor fabrication process employed standard microfabrication techniques. X-ray diffraction and high-resolution analytical transmission electron microscopy using energy-dispersive x-ray and electron energy-loss spectroscopies confirmed the presence of the anatase phase in TiO(2) clusters after post-deposition anneal at 700 °C. A change of current was observed for these hybrid sensors when exposed to the vapors of aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene and chlorobenzene mixed with air) under UV excitation, while they had no response to non-aromatic organic compounds such as methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, chloroform, acetone and 1,3-hexadiene. The sensitivity range for the noted aromatic compounds except chlorobenzene were from 1% down to 50 parts per billion (ppb) at room temperature. By combining the enhanced catalytic properties of the TiO(2) nanoclusters with the sensitive transduction capability of the nanowires, an ultra-sensitive and selective chemical sensing architecture is demonstrated. We have proposed a mechanism that could qualitatively explain the observed sensing behavior.

Correlation between the performance and microstructure of Ti/Al/Ti/Au Ohmic contacts to p-type silicon nanowires.

Understanding the electrical and microstructural aspects of contact formation at nanoscale is essential for the realization of low-resistance metallization suitable for the next generation of nanowire based devices. In this study, we present detailed electrical and microstructural characteristics of Ti/Al/Ti/Au metal contacts to p-type Si nanowires (SiNWs) annealed at various temperatures. Focused ion beam cross-sectioning techniques and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) were used to determine the microstructure of the source/drain metal contacts of working SiNW field-effect transistors (FETs) annealed for 30 s in the 450-850 °C temperature range in inert atmosphere. Formation of titanium silicides is observed at the metal/semiconductor interface after the 750 °C anneal. Extensive Si out-diffusion from the nanowire after the 750 °C anneal led to Kirkendall void formation. Annealing at 850 °C led to almost complete out-diffusion of Si from the nanowire core. Devices with 550 °C annealed contacts had linear electrical characteristics; whereas the devices annealed at 750 °C had the best characteristics in terms of linearity, symmetric behavior, and yield. Devices annealed at 850 °C had poor yield, which can be directly attributed to the microstructure of the contact region observed in STEM.

Phase separations of single-crystal nanowires grown by self-catalytic chemical vapor deposition method.

The fundamentals of phase separations of single-crystal III-V nitride nanowires grown by self-catalytic chemical vapor deposition method have been studied. Experimental tools, such as high resolution transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, have been used to characterize the nanowires. The study indicates that nanowires with diameters exceeding about 100 nm undergo phase transitions and/or crystal structure deterioration. The study highlights a relationship between the crystal structure and the kinetics of growth of nanowires.

Chemicophysical surface treatment and the experimental demonstration of Schottky-Mott rules for metal/semiconductor heterostructure interfaces.

Metal/semiconductor (MS) heterostructure is of wide interest in a number of areas including physics, chemistry, materials science, materials engineering, chemical engineering, and electrical engineering. It is an important element of modern technology. The present investigation describes a novel experimental technique to address the influence of interfacial chemical passivation on the Schottky-Mott [Naturwiss. 26, 843 (1938); Cambridge Philos. Soc. 34, 568 (1938)] rules for MS heterostructure, and to try to establish these rules. The success of the experiment derives from three remarkable findings: First, a semiconductor (Al(x)Ga(1-x)N), which is robust and relatively less susceptible to an easy reaction with foreign chemicals, is needed for the demonstration. Second, reactive ion etching together with wet chemical etching by certain selected chemical (such as KOH), but not by others (for example, H(3)PO(4) or aqua regia), can clean the semiconductor surface well, and remove/passivate the dangling chemical bonds from this surface. Third, a judicious selection of deposition parameters for the deposition of metal(s) preferably on a certain selected semiconductor can lead to metal deposition on the semiconductor surface by van der Waals type of epitaxy. Transmission electron microscopy and x-ray diffraction indicate that MS heterostructures, thus prepared, are very different from others; they appear to provide convincing experimental verification of the Schottky-Mott rules, and to establish these rules without any ambiguity. Others fail to do it.