A dataset of new occurrence records of primates from the arc of deforestation, Brazil.

​​​​​​​The so-called arc of deforestation is a major agricultural and industrial frontier in southern Amazonia and northern Cerrado of Brazil. As arboreal mammals, the primates in this region are therefore threatened by forest loss and fragmentation. At the same time, knowledge about the taxonomic diversity and distribution ranges of these taxa is incomplete, which might hamper efficient conservation measurements. New species have been recently discovered in this region, and their ranges remain imprecise because only a few occurrence records are available for each species. Here we present 192 new records of 22 species and subspecies of Alouatta, Aotus, Ateles, Cebus, Chiropotes, Lagothrix, Leontocebus, Pithecia, Plecturocebus, Saimiri, and Sapajus, collected in 56 different localities during 10 field expeditions across the arc of deforestation between 2015 and 2018. Based on these new records, we extend the ranges of Alouatta puruensis, Ateles chamek, and Saimiri collinsi; identify potential hybridization zones between A. puruensis and A. discolor, and between At. chamek and At. marginatus; redefine the range of Plecturocebus moloch; and clarify the ranges of P. baptista and P. hoffmannsi. Moreover, these results and the dataset are valuable for further research on, for example, species distribution and habitat use modeling, for assessing species extinction risks, and for supporting efforts for the conservation of species increasingly threatened on a global deforestation frontier.

Update of the geographic range of Humboldt's squirrel monkeys (Saimiri cassiquiarensis cassiquiarensis Lesson, 1840) using a model-based approach.

Saimiri cassiquiarensis cassiquiarensis (Cebidae) is a primate subspecies with a wide distribution in the Amazonian region of Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela. However, the boundaries of its geographic range remain poorly defined. This study presents new occurrence localities for this subspecies and updates its distribution using a compiled data set of 140 occurrence records based on literature, specimens vouchered in scientific collections, and new field data to produce model-based range maps. After cleaning our data set, we updated the subspecies' extent of occurrence, which was used in model calibration. We then modeled the subspecies' range using a maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt). The final model was adjusted using a fixed threshold, and we revised this polygon based on known geographic barriers and parapatric congeneric ranges. Our findings indicate that this subspecies is strongly associated with lowland areas, with consistently high daily temperatures. We propose modifications to all range boundaries and estimate that 3% of the area of occupancy (AOO, as defined by IUCN) has already been lost due to deforestation, resulting in a current range of 224,469 km2. We also found that 54% of their AOO is currently covered by protected areas (PAs). Based on these results, we consider that this subspecies is currently properly classified as Least Concern, because it occupies an extensive range, which is relatively well covered by PAs, and is currently experiencing low rates of deforestation.

Saimiri cassiquiarensis cassiquiarensis (Cebidae) é uma subespécie de primata com ampla distribuição na região amazônica do Brasil, Colômbia e Venezuela. No entanto, os limites de sua distribuição geográfica permanecem mal definidos. Este estudo apresenta novas localidades de ocorrência para essa subespécie e atualiza sua distribuição usando 140 registros de ocorrência compilados com base na literatura, espécimes depositados em coleções científicas e novos registros de campo para produzir mapas de distribuição baseados em modelos. Após a limpeza do nosso banco de dados, atualizamos a extensão de ocorrência da subespécie, que foi usada na calibração do modelo. Em seguida, modelamos a área de distribuição da subespécie usando um algoritmo de entropia máxima (MaxEnt). O modelo final foi ajustado usando um limiar fixo e revisamos esse polígono com base em barreiras geográficas conhecidas e na distribuição de congêneres parapátricas. Nosso modelo sugere que a espécie é fortemente associada a áreas planas, com temperaturas diárias consistentemente altas. Propomos modificações em todos os limites da área de distribuição e estimamos que 3% da área de ocupação (AOO, conforme definida pela IUCN) da subespécie já foi perdida devido ao desmatamento, resultando em uma área de distribuição atual de 224,469 km2. Também estimamos que 54% de sua AOO encontra­se atualmente coberta por áreas protegidas. Com base nesses resultados, consideramos que a subespécie está apropriadamente classificada como Pouco Preocupante, pois ocupa uma área extensa, que é relativamente bem coberta por áreas protegidas e atualmente apresenta baixas taxas de desmatamento.

Predation of Boana boans (Anura, Hylidae) by an opportunistic frugivorous primate

Although relatively common among omnivorous primates, anurophagy is still poorly documented in frugivorous species. Here we report the predation of a giant gladiator treefrog (Boana boans) by a large arboreal frugivore, the gray woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha cana). The predation event occurred in a stretch of riparian forest located in a fragmented region in Cacoal, Rondônia state, in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia. Anurans can be a profitable, non-contested, and relatively easily acquired alternative resource for gray woolly monkeys, helping to fulfill their demand for protein, especially in periods of fruit scarcity. This new record broadens the knowledge on the natural history and predators of the giant gladiator frog. (AU)

Predation of Boana boans (Anura, Hylidae) by an opportunistic frugivorous primate / Predação de Boana boans (Anura, Hylidae) por um primata frugívoro oportunista

Although relatively common among omnivorous primates, anurophagy is still poorly documented in frugivorous species. Here we report the predation of a giant gladiator treefrog (Boana boans) by a large arboreal frugivore, the gray woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha cana). The predation event occurred in a stretch of riparian forest located in a fragmented region in Cacoal, Rondônia state, in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia. Anurans can be a profitable, non-contested, and relatively easily acquired alternative resource for gray woolly monkeys, helping to fulfill their demand for protein, especially in periods of fruit scarcity. This new record broadens the knowledge on the natural history and predators of the giant gladiator frog.(AU)

Embora relativamente comum entre primatas onívoros, a anurofagia ainda é pouco documentada entre espécies frugívoras. Relatamos a predação de um sapo-canoeiro (Boana boans) por um primata frugívoro de grande porte, o macaco-barrigudo (Lagothrix lagotricha cana). O evento de predação ocorreu em um fragmento de floresta ripária localizado em Cacoal, Rondônia, no sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira. Anuros podem ser um recurso alternativo vantajoso, não contestado, e de aquisição relativamente fácil para macacos-barrigudos, ajudando a suprir sua demanda por proteína, especialmente em períodos de escassez de frutos. Nosso registro expande o conhecimento sobre a história natural e os predadores do sapo-canoeiro.(AU)

Insights into the development of a juvenile harpy eagle's hunting skills / Considerações sobre o desenvolvimento da habilidade de caça de um gavião-real juvenil

The post-fledging period is of paramount importance for raptors, since this is when a juvenile develops its hunting skills and gains the abilities required in adulthood and independence through dispersal. Little is known however, about this stage in the lives of raptors such as harpy eagles, Harpia harpyja. Between March 2016 and July 2017, we recorded three predation attempts on groups of primates by a wild juvenile harpy eagle in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia, including the first predation of an adult squirrel monkey, Saimiri ustus. These sequential records give insights into the gradual development of hunting skills during the post-fledging period, similar to what has been reported for other birds of prey. We hypothesize that a link between developing flight skills, decreasing parental food provisioning and increasingly successful captures triggers adulthood and independence in harpy eagles. (AU)

O período pós-emplumagem é de suma importância para os rapinantes, pois é quando um jovem desenvolve a habilidade de caça necessária na idade adulta e a independência por meio da dispersão. Entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre esse estágio na vida de rapinantes como o gavião-real, Harpia harpyja. Entre março 2016 e julho 2017, três tentativas de predação sobre grupos de primatas por um gavião-real juvenil foram registradas no sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira, incluindo a primeira predação de um macaco-de-cheiro adulto, Saimiri ustus. Estes registros sequenciais indicam um desenvolvimento gradual da habilidade de caça ao longo do período de pós-emplumagem, de forma similar ao relatado para outros rapinantes. Hipotetizamos que a associação entre o desenvolvimento da habilidade de voo, diminuição do provisionamento pelos pais e aumento da taxa de capturas bem-sucedidas promove a maturidade e independência no gavião-real.(AU)

Insights into the development of a juvenile harpy eagle's hunting skills / Considerações sobre o desenvolvimento da habilidade de caça de um gavião-real juvenil

The post-fledging period is of paramount importance for raptors, since this is when a juvenile develops its hunting skills and gains the abilities required in adulthood and independence through dispersal. Little is known however, about this stage in the lives of raptors such as harpy eagles, Harpia harpyja. Between March 2016 and July 2017, we recorded three predation attempts on groups of primates by a wild juvenile harpy eagle in southwestern Brazilian Amazonia, including the first predation of an adult squirrel monkey, Saimiri ustus. These sequential records give insights into the gradual development of hunting skills during the post-fledging period, similar to what has been reported for other birds of prey. We hypothesize that a link between developing flight skills, decreasing parental food provisioning and increasingly successful captures triggers adulthood and independence in harpy eagles.(AU)

O período pós-emplumagem é de suma importância para os rapinantes, pois é quando um jovem desenvolve a habilidade de caça necessária na idade adulta e a independência por meio da dispersão. Entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre esse estágio na vida de rapinantes como o gavião-real, Harpia harpyja. Entre março 2016 e julho 2017, três tentativas de predação sobre grupos de primatas por um gavião-real juvenil foram registradas no sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira, incluindo a primeira predação de um macaco-de-cheiro adulto, Saimiri ustus. Estes registros sequenciais indicam um desenvolvimento gradual da habilidade de caça ao longo do período de pós-emplumagem, de forma similar ao relatado para outros rapinantes. Hipotetizamos que a associação entre o desenvolvimento da habilidade de voo, diminuição do provisionamento pelos pais e aumento da taxa de capturas bem-sucedidas promove a maturidade e independência no gavião-real.(AU)

Eastern extension of the geographic range of Mico emiliae / Extensão oriental da distribuição geográfica de Mico emiliae

The distribution of the callitrichids inhabiting the Tapajós-Xingu interfluvium is still poorly understood, probably because of the limited number of studies in this remote region. Mico emiliae is a callitrichid endemic to Brazil, occurring between the Jamanxim and Teles Pires rivers, and Serra do Cachimbo in the west and Iriri River in the east, in the states of Pará and Mato Grosso. However, its current distribution is still uncertain. After ca. 430-km surveys in Serra do Pardo National Park, we successfully confirmed the occurrence of this species for the first time approximately 180 km east of its previously known eastern limit in Pará. Our records expand the distribution of M. emiliae to the left bank of the Xingu River, increasing the known extent of its occurrence by 83%.

A distribuição dos calitriquídeos que habitam o interflúvio Tapajós-Xingu ainda é pouco conhecida, provavelmente devido ao limitado número de estudos que ocorreram nesta região remota. Mico emiliae é um calitriquídeo endêmico do Brasil que ocorre na região limitada pelos rios Jamanxim e Teles Pires e pela Serra do Cachimbo ao oeste e Rio Iriri ao leste, nos estados do Pará e Mato Grosso. Entretanto, sua distribuição ainda é incerta. Após ca. 430 km de levantamentos no Parque Nacional da Serra do Pardo, nós confirmamos a ocorrência desta espécie pela primeira vez aproximadamente 180 km ao leste de seu limite oriental reconhecido no Pará. Esses novos registros expandem a distribuição de M. emiliae até a margem esquerda do rio Xingu, aumentando sua extensão de ocorrência em 83%.

Eastern extension of the geographic range of Mico emiliae / Extensão oriental da distribuição geográfica de Mico emiliae

The distribution of the callitrichids inhabiting the Tapajós-Xingu interfluvium is still poorly understood, probably because of the limited number of studies in this remote region. Mico emiliae is a callitrichid endemic to Brazil, occurring between the Jamanxim and Teles Pires rivers, and Serra do Cachimbo in the west and Iriri River in the east, in the states of Pará and Mato Grosso. However, its current distribution is still uncertain. After ca. 430-km surveys in Serra do Pardo National Park, we successfully confirmed the occurrence of this species for the first time approximately 180 km east of its previously known eastern limit in Pará. Our records expand the distribution of M. emiliae to the left bank of the Xingu River, increasing the known extent of its occurrence by 83%.(AU)

A distribuição dos calitriquídeos que habitam o interflúvio Tapajós-Xingu ainda é pouco conhecida, provavelmente devido ao limitado número de estudos que ocorreram nesta região remota. Mico emiliae é um calitriquídeo endêmico do Brasil que ocorre na região limitada pelos rios Jamanxim e Teles Pires e pela Serra do Cachimbo ao oeste e Rio Iriri ao leste, nos estados do Pará e Mato Grosso. Entretanto, sua distribuição ainda é incerta. Após ca. 430 km de levantamentos no Parque Nacional da Serra do Pardo, nós confirmamos a ocorrência desta espécie pela primeira vez aproximadamente 180 km ao leste de seu limite oriental reconhecido no Pará. Esses novos registros expandem a distribuição de M. emiliae até a margem esquerda do rio Xingu, aumentando sua extensão de ocorrência em 83%.(AU)

Effects of Local Habitat Variation on the Behavioral Ecology of Two Sympatric Groups of Brown Howler Monkey (Alouatta clamitans).

Although the brown howler monkey (Alouatta clamitans) is a relatively well-studied Neotropical primate, its behavioral and dietary flexibility at the intra-population level remains poorly documented. This study presents data collected on the behavior and ecology of two closely located groups of brown howlers during the same period at the RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala in southeastern Brazil. One group occupied a primary valley habitat, henceforth the Valley Group (VG), and the other group occupied a regenerating hillside habitat, the Hill Group (HG). We hypothesized differences in the behavior and ecological parameters between these sympatric groups due to the predicted harsher conditions on the hillside, compared to the valley. We measured several habitat parameters within the home range of both groups and collected data on the activity budget, diet and day range lengths, from August to November 2005, between dawn and dusk. In total, behavioral data were collected for 26 (318 h) and 28 (308 h) sampling days for VG and HG, respectively. As we predicted, HG spent significantly more time feeding and consumed less fruit and more leaves than VG, consistent with our finding that the hillside habitat was of lower quality. However, HG also spent less time resting and more time travelling than VG, suggesting that the monkeys had to expend more time and energy to obtain high-energy foods, such as fruits and flowers that were more widely spaced in their hill habitat. Our results revealed that different locations in this forest vary in quality and raise the question of how different groups secure their home ranges. Fine-grained comparisons such as this are important to prioritize conservation and management areas within a reserve.

Males follow females during fissioning of a group of northern muriquis.

Although well documented in matrilocal primate species, group fission is still a poorly known phenomenon among patrilocal primates. In this paper we describe in detail a group fission event in the population of northern muriquis at the Reserva Particular do Patrimônio Natural-Feliciano Miguel Abdala in Caratinga, Minas Gerais, Brazil, using Social Network Analyses (SNA). Data on association patterns were collected during systematic observations from May 2002 to September 2005, and analyzed for dry (from May to October) and rainy seasons (from November to April). The fission process started with subgroup formation in the rainy season 2002-2003, and was completed by the dry season of 2003. By the dry season 2003, the parent group (Jaó) had fissioned to form a second mixed-sex group (Nadir) while a subgroup of males (MU) moved between the parent group and the newly established group. Before the Jaó group fission started (dry season 2002) and during its initial phases (rainy season 2002-2003), females that ultimately composed the daughter group (Nadir) were the most peripheral in the association network. In the rainy season 2002-2003, the median monthly (N=6) operational sex ratio (OSR) of Jaó group was 2.81. However, once Jaó females initiated the fissioning process to establish the Nadir group, the OSR was more favorable to males in the Nadir group than in the Jaó group. Our results suggest that males followed the females to escape an unfavorable OSR in their natal group.

Crying tapir: the functionality of errors and accuracy in predator recognition in two neotropical high-canopy primates.

Predation is often considered to be a prime driver in primate evolution, but, as predation is rarely observed in nature, little is known of primate antipredator responses. Time-limited primates should be highly discerning when responding to predators, since time spent in vigilance and avoidance behaviour may supplant other activities. We present data from two independent studies describing and quantifying the frequency, nature and duration of predator-linked behaviours in 2 high-canopy primates, Ateles belzebuth and Cacajao ouakary. We introduce the concept of 'pseudopredators' (harmless species whose appearance is sufficiently similar to that of predators to elicit antipredator responses) and predict that changes in behaviour should increase with risk posed by a perceived predator. We studied primate group encounters with non-primate vertebrates across 14 (Ateles) and 19 (Cacajao) months in 2 undisturbed Amazonian forests. Although preliminary, data on both primates revealed that they distinguished the potential predation capacities of other species, as predicted. They appeared to differentiate predators from non-predators and distinguished when potential predators were not an immediate threat, although they reacted erroneously to pseudopredators, on average in about 20% of the responses given toward other vertebrates. Reacting to pseudopredators would be interesting since, in predation, one error can be fatal to the prey.

How much effort should be employed for surveying a low-diversity Amazonian mammal assemblage using line-transects?

Line-transect surveys are commonly used for sampling large mammals, but estimates of the effort needed to reliably surveying low-diversity assemblages of mammals are scarce. Using data from line-transects and species accumulation curves, I examined whether or not a sampling effort previously suggested to survey mammals elsewhere (ca. 85-100 km) would be satisfactory for surveying a low-diversity assemblage of large mammals in the Rio Negro basin in northern Amazonia. In total, 14 mammals were recorded after an accumulated effort of 690 km walked. The desired threshold of completeness was only achieved in one of six transects after an average effort of 115 km surveyed. Considering the entire landscape (all transects pooled), survey completeness was reached after a much higher effort. Moreover, the theoretical effort required to achieve completeness was estimated to be 150-360 km per transect, and 512 km for the landscape. Further studies are required to fully understand this issue, but meanwhile it is safest to assume that higher sampling efforts should be employed when surveying low-diversity assemblages through diurnal line-transects in northwestern Amazonia to get robust estimates of mammal richness.

How much effort should be employed for surveying a low-diversity Amazonian mammal assemblage using line-transects?

Line-transect surveys are commonly used for sampling large mammals, but estimates of the effort needed to reliably surveying low-diversity assemblages of mammals are scarce. Using data from line-transects and species accumulation curves, I examined whether or not a sampling effort previously suggested to survey mammals elsewhere (ca. 85-100 km) would be satisfactory for surveying a low-diversity assemblage of large mammals in the Rio Negro basin in northern Amazonia. In total, 14 mammals were recorded after an accumulated effort of 690 km walked. The desired threshold of completeness was only achieved in one of six transects after an average effort of 115 km surveyed. Considering the entire landscape (all transects pooled), survey completeness was reached after a much higher effort. Moreover, the theoretical effort required to achieve completeness was estimated to be 150-360 km per transect, and 512 km for the landscape. Further studies are required to fully understand this issue, but meanwhile it is safest to assume that higher sampling efforts should be employed when surveying low-diversity assemblages through diurnal line-transects in northwestern Amazonia to get robust estimates of mammal richness.(AU)

How much effort should be employed for surveying a low-diversity Amazonian mammal assemblage using line-transects?

Line-transect surveys are commonly used for sampling large mammals, but estimates of the effort needed to reliably surveying low-diversity assemblages of mammals are scarce. Using data from line-transects and species accumulation curves, I examined whether or not a sampling effort previously suggested to survey mammals elsewhere (ca. 85-100 km) would be satisfactory for surveying a low-diversity assemblage of large mammals in the Rio Negro basin in northern Amazonia. In total, 14 mammals were recorded after an accumulated effort of 690 km walked. The desired threshold of completeness was only achieved in one of six transects after an average effort of 115 km surveyed. Considering the entire landscape (all transects pooled), survey completeness was reached after a much higher effort. Moreover, the theoretical effort required to achieve completeness was estimated to be 150-360 km per transect, and 512 km for the landscape. Further studies are required to fully understand this issue, but meanwhile it is safest to assume that higher sampling efforts should be employed when surveying low-diversity assemblages through diurnal line-transects in northwestern Amazonia to get robust estimates of mammal richness.

Can roads be used as transects for primate population surveys?.

Line transect distance sampling (LTDS) can be applied to either trails or roads. However, it is likely that sampling along roads might result in biased density estimates. In this paper, we compared the results obtained with LTDS applied on trails and roads for two primate species (Callithrix penicillata and Callicebus nigrifrons) to clarify whether roads are appropriate transects to estimate densities. We performed standard LTDS surveys in two nature reserves in south-eastern Brazil. Effective strip width and population density were different between trails and roads for C. penicillata, but not for C. nigrifrons. The results suggest that roads are not appropriate for use as transects in primate surveys, at least for some species. Further work is required to fully understand this issue, but in the meantime we recommend that researchers avoid using roads as transects or treat roads and trails as covariates when sampling on roads is unavoidable.

Ground use by northern muriquis (Brachyteles hypoxanthus).

Many arboreal primates descend to the ground, a custom that may occur more frequently in disturbed habitats, and in the presence of researchers to whom the primates are habituated. In this paper, we describe opportunistic observations of ground use in two groups of northern muriquis (Brachyteles hypoxanthus) at the RPPN Feliciano Miguel Abdala, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Members of both groups were observed drinking, resting, feeding, playing, and traveling on the ground to different degrees, and variation in the levels of habituation of the two groups may be responsible for the differences in the distribution of their terrestrial activities. The potential increase in vulnerability to predation or disease owing to ground use has implications for the conservation of this critically endangered species.