Global perspectives on animal welfare: Africa.

Livestock production systems, production objectives, the cultural values of livestock keepers, and the close relationship between keepers and their livestock have evolved over the years and have influenced the quality of animal welfare in Africa. An equivalent level and quality of care is not evident for companion animals, especially dogs and donkeys, who are often mistreated and physically abused. In the densely populated highland and humid coastal belts of Africa, profit-driven commercial large-scale intensive livestock production systems predominate. As the main production objective of these operations is to maximise profit, the operators of these production systems do not exhibit the same kind of attachment to their livestock as traditional farmers. In some large-scale commercial systems animals and birds are kept in sub-standard poorly constructed structures that greatly restrict the animals' movements. In Africa, conservation of wildlife habitats is part of animal welfare, but due to an increasing human population and a greater demand for land for grazing, cultivation, and housing, wildlife reserves are quickly diminishing. This essentially means that the land that was previously set aside for wildlife and forests is being encroached upon and previously unsettled plains and marginal lands are being used for agriculture and mining. In most places there is significant conflict between humans and wildlife, such that wildlife are considered to be pests that need to be destroyed. This is a particular problem in areas where wildlife have destroyed crops, attacked man and/or livestock, or there has been disease transmission between animals and humans. In situations and/or areas that do not have official animal control services, crude weapons, poisons, and traps are used to kill the wildlife. Animal welfare issues, domestic and wildlife related, need to be urgently addressed through policy and legal frameworks and supported by community awareness of, education about, and participation in, animal welfare issues.

Prevalence of microorganisms associated with udder infections in dairy goats on small-scale farms in Kenya.

Six hundred and thirty clinically-normal milk samples from dairy goat flocks comprising a mixed population of German Alpine, Toggenburg, Saanen and Galla crosses were examined over a 3-month period to determine the prevalence of bacterial organisms. Bacteria were isolated in 28.7% of the milk samples (181/630) either singly (92.8%) or in combination (7.2%). The most prevalent bacterial organisms were Staphylococcus spp. (60.3%), followed by Micrococcus spp. (17.7%), Acinetobacter spp. (5%), Actinomyces spp. (5%) and Streptococcus spp. (1.1%). The Staphylococcus spp. were mainly coagulase negative (64.3%). Coagulase-negative staphylococci and coagulase-positive staphylococci accounted for 37.5% and 22.7% respectively of the total bacteria isolated. The isolation of bacteria, some of which are important in clinical and subclinical mastitis, in apparently normal caprine milk, indicates that particular attention should be given to the management of these dairy goat flocks in order to avoid the development of cases of clinical mastitis.

Progressive atrophic rhinitis in a medium-scale pig farm in Kiambu, Kenya.

Forty-two pigs in a herd of 117 displayed various clinical signs of progressive atrophic rhinitis. The main signs included sneezing, coughing, lachrymation, serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, and nasal bleeding in 1 pig. Three pigs had lateral deviation of the snout, while 4 had brachygnathia superior with obvious deformation of the face. Four acutely affected weaner pigs appeared weak, while the 7 chronically-affected pigs appeared smaller than their apparently unaffected penmates of the same age. Treatment of the acutely affected pigs with long-acting oxytetracycline at 20 mg/kg body weight intramuscularly, repeated once after 7 days, reduced the severity but did not clear the sneezing from all the pigs. Fifteen pigs were slaughtered 2 months after the clinical diagnosis was made. The carcasses of the chronically affected pigs were about 15% lighter than those of the apparently normal pigs of the same age and from the same pen, which translated to a loss of 921.00 Kenya shillings per pig (US$13.7). Diagnosis of progressive atrophic rhinitis was confirmed by sectioning the snouts of randomly selected slaughtered pigs with obvious deformation of the snout. Sections were made at the level of the 1st/2nd upper premolar tooth. Varying degrees of turbinate atrophy, from mild to complete, were noted. Histopathology of the turbinates revealed metaplasia of nasal epithelium and fibrosis in the lamina propria.

The prevalence of subclinical mastitis in dairy goats in Kenya.

California mastitis test (CMT), direct leukocytes counts and bacteriological examination were performed on 630 milk samples from apparently healthy mammary glands of dairy goats comprising a mixed population of German Alpine, Toggenberg, Saanen and Galla crosses to find the prevalence of subclinical mastitis. The prevalence of subclinical mastitis was 9.8% according to CMT, 9.7% according to direct leukocyte counts and 28.7% by bacterial isolation during a 3-month period. The proportion of the bacteriologically positive milk samples was significantly (P <0.01) higher than that positive for CMT and direct leukocyte counts. There was a significant (P < 0.01) correlation between CMT and direct leukocyte counts. There was no significant direct relationship between bacterial isolation and CMT Bacterial organisms were isolated in 22.5% of the 568 CMT-negative milk samples. The results suggest that bacterial organisms isolated from the CMT-negative milksamples were either latent infections or did not stimulate any significant increase in somatic cell counts that could be detected by either the CMT or direct leukocyte counts. The observations of this study indicate that the mere presence of bacteria in goat's milk does not mean that the udder is infected and so does not warrant antibiotic therapy.

Prognostic indicators of post partum viability of kids born to Escherichia coli-vaccinated or unvaccinated does.

This study was undertaken to determine some blood and other physiological parameters with potential for use as prognostic indicators of viability of newborn goat kids. Of the 143 kids born during the on-farm study, 97 were crosses of Galla x Small East African (SEA) and 46 were pure SEA. The SEA x Galla kids were 46 single males, with a mean body weight at birth of 2.77 +/- 0.22 kg, 43 females with a mean body weight at birth of 2.36 +/- 0.76 kg and 5 and 3 sets of female and male twins (mean body weight at birth of 1.8 +/- 0.19 kg and 2.05 +/- 0.07 kg for the female and male kids, respectively). The SEA kids comprised 36 single male and female kids (mean body weight at birth of 2.48 +/- 0.04 kg and 10 sets of twins (both male and female) (mean body weight at birth of 1.50 +/- 0.04 kg ). Pre-suckling sera obtained on-station from kids born of does vaccinated against Escherichia coli (n = 8) and unvaccinated does (n = 7) had a total protein content of <40.0 g/l and no detectable levels of IgG and A or E. coli antibodies. Sera obtained 12 hours post partum) from kids that survived in both groups contained about 19-22 g of Ig g/l, 50-80 g total protein/l, blood glucose of >5 mmol/l and had an E. coli antibody titre of between 1/160 and 1/640. On the other hand, kids that died within 48 hours of birth (parturient deaths) and had been classified in categories 3 and 4 righting reaction had low (<40 g/l) total protein, low white blood cell count (4,000/ml) and low blood glucose concentration (<4.9 mmol/l). It is concluded that kids with delayed righting reaction (>45 minutes), low rectal temperature (<36 degrees C), low birth weights (<1.5 kg for singles and <1.0 kg for twins), low white blood cells (<4,000/ml), low (<2 mmol/l) blood glucose levels, low total protein (<40.0 g/l), low (<1:160) E. coli antibody titre and IgG (< or =3,350 mg/l) in sera obtained 12 hours after birth have a poor prognosis for survival.

Semen characteristics of goats with subacute, acute and chronic besnoitiosis.

A study on the semen obtained from breeding goats suffering from mild to severe chronic besnoitiosis revealed marked changes in semen volume, colour, density, concentration, mass and individual motility and percentage live. There were also many neutrophils and spermatozoa with primary and secondary defects, including missing tails and deformed heads and tails. The observed changes were considered to be severe enough to account for the infertility observed in the flock. Sections of testes obtained for histopathology were characterised by massive blockage of the pampiniform plexus, degeneration of the germinal epithelium, tubular necrosis with an inflammatory infiltrate and, in some cases, accumulation of haemosiderin-like material in the tunica vaginalis.

Prevalence of besnoitiosis in domestic ruminants in Kenya: a preliminary survey.

A preliminary survey on the prevalence of besnoitiosis in domestic ruminants in Kenya based on field and farm visits, clinical and post mortem examinations and histopathological examination of tissues and biopsies, showed that goats are the most affected, followed by cattle, while sheep were unaffected. Caprine besnoitiosis occurred in a continuous belt in 5 of the 8 provinces in Kenya stretching from the Coast, Eastern, North Eastern, Nairobi and the Rift Valley Provinces. Mandera, in the North Eastern Province, had the highest prevalence rate of 36%, followed by Kwale (35%), Isiolo (35%), Marsabit (33%), Wajir (28%), Nairobi (26%), Meru (24%), Garissa (21%), Taita Taveta (18%), Embu (17%), Kitui (9%), Machakos (7%), Laikipia (3%), Kajiado (2%) and Turkana and Elgeyo-Marakwet (1% each). In all flocks where the prevalence rates were over 6%, kids were observed to be affected. There were no significant differences (P < 0.05) between the prevalence rates in bucks and does (18% and 18.4, respectively), but kids were less (4%) affected. Bovine besnoitiosis was found only in the Tana River District, with an infection rate of 11%.

Experimental transmission of Besnoitia caprae in goats.

Experimental transmission of Besnoitia caprae from naturally chronically-infected goats to susceptible ones was achieved by intra-nasal instillation and intra-conjunctival inoculation of cystozoite-containing suspensions, subcutaneous implantation of fascia containing cysts and alternate needle pricking between the infected and non-infected goats. Typical chronic symptoms developed in the fascia-infected does. Cystozoite inoculation into the eyes and mouth did not result in infection. Kids born of dams with acute and chronic besnoitiosis did not contract the infection in utero, suggesting that intra-uterine transmission may not occur. In contrast to does with acute besnoitiosis, which occasionally aborted, the does with chronic besnoitiosis gave birth to healthy kids. Kids below the age of 4 months (pre-weaned period) born of both infected and non-infected does were susceptible to besnoitiosis but appeared to be more resistant than adult goats.

An outbreak of urticarial form of swine erysipelas in a medium-scale piggery in Kiambu District, Kenya.

This report concerns an outbreak that occurred during July/August 1997. Ten pigs from a herd of 181 pigs in a medium-scale, semi-closed piggery in Kiambu District, Kenya, contracted the clinical disease. The main clinical findings in affected pigs included: fever (40.5-41.8 degrees C), prostration, inappetence, dog-sitting posture, abortion, erythema and raised, firm to the touch and easily palpated light pink to dark purple diamond-shaped to square/rectangular spots on the skin around the belly and the back. Based on the pathognomonic skin lesions, a clinical diagnosis of swine erysipelas was made. The diagnosis was confirmed by the isolation of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae organisms from the blood and skin biopsies taken from the affected pigs. Response to treatment with a combination of procaine penicillin and dihydrostreptomycin at the dosage rate of 20,000 IU/kg body weight (based on procaine penicillin) for 3 days was good and all the affected pigs recovered fully. The farm was placed under quarantine to prevent spread of the disease.

The use of preserved colostrum for rearing replacement dairy calves: calf performance, economics and on-farm practicability in Kenya.

A total of 133 observations on mean daily mass gains from 19 calves reared on either whole milk (control) or preserved colostrum (treatment) were estimated. The control group had a total of 104 observations computed, while the treatment group had a total of 29 observations. There was no significant difference in the overall mean daily mass gains between the treatment and control groups which were 0.2257 and 0.3607 kg, respectively (P < 0.1). Partial budgeting analysis estimated that with an annual calf crop of 80 calves, the use of preserved colostrum would result in a direct saving of an estimated US$1,800 per year for the farm.

Endometritis in the mare: A comparison between reproductive history and uterine biopsy as techniques for predicting susceptibility of mares to uterine infection.

Thirty mares with no clinical signs of endometritis were categorized as being susceptible or resistant to uterine infection depending on whether or not they had a history of recurrent endometritis. The same mares were then independently classified as susceptible or resistant on the basis of their uterine biopsies; those with significant endometrial degeneration were considered to be susceptible to endometritis. The mares then received an intrauterine inoculation of pathogenic Streptococcus zooepidemicus . Those mares which eliminated bacteria by 10 d after inoculation were considered truly resistant to endometritis, whereas those still infected at 10 d were considered susceptible. The original classifications based on history or biopsy were compared to the inoculation results. A history of recurrent endometritis provided a more sensitive (0.90) and specific (0.95) indication of susceptibility to uterine infection than a uterine biopsy with significant endometrial degeneration (sensitivity 0.5, specificity 0.75).