Morphological Characteristics of Biliary Strictures after Liver Transplantation Visualized Using SpyGlass™ Cholangioscopy.

Biliary complications following liver transplant are common. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) are the main techniques used to diagnose and treat biliary complications; however, these techniques have limits to the depth of visualization. In this report, we present five cases of orthotopic liver transplant patients with biliary complications that underwent ERCP- or MRCP-guided cholangioscopy with the SpyGlass™ DS Direct Visualization System (SDDVS). The SDDVS allowed for the visualization of the morphological characteristics of biliary strictures, and images collected using the SDDVS allowed for four of the cases to be treated endoscopically. Our findings suggest that cholangioscopy with the SDDVS is a promising method to guide the endoscopic treatment of biliary complications after liver transplantation.

Mutual inhibition between Prkd2 and Bcl6 controls T follicular helper cell differentiation.

T follicular helper cells (TFH) participate in germinal center (GC) development and are necessary for B cell production of high-affinity, isotype-switched antibodies. In a forward genetic screen, we identified a missense mutation in Prkd2, encoding the serine/threonine kinase protein kinase D2, which caused elevated titers of immunoglobulin E (IgE) in the serum. Subsequent analysis of serum antibodies in mice with a targeted null mutation of Prkd2 demonstrated polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia of IgE, IgG1, and IgA isotypes, which was exacerbated by the T cell-dependent humoral response to immunization. GC formation and GC B cells were increased in Prkd2-/- spleens. These effects were the result of excessive cell-autonomous TFH development caused by unrestricted Bcl6 nuclear translocation in Prkd2-/- CD4+ T cells. Prkd2 directly binds to Bcl6, and Prkd2-dependent phosphorylation of Bcl6 is necessary to constrain Bcl6 to the cytoplasm, thereby limiting TFH development. In response to immunization, Bcl6 repressed Prkd2 expression in CD4+ T cells, thereby committing them to TFH development. Thus, Prkd2 and Bcl6 form a mutually inhibitory positive feedback loop that controls the stable transition from naïve CD4+ T cells to TFH during the adaptive immune response.

Research Techniques Made Simple: Forward Genetic Screening to Uncover Genes Involved in Skin Biology.

The primary goals of modern genetics are to identify disease-causing mutations and to define the functions of genes in biological processes. Two complementary approaches, reverse and forward genetics, can be used to achieve this goal. Reverse genetics is a gene-driven approach that comprises specific gene targeting followed by phenotypic assessment. Conversely, forward genetics is a phenotype-driven approach that involves the phenotypic screening of organisms with randomly induced mutations followed by subsequent identification of the causative mutations (i.e., those responsible for phenotype). In this article, we focus on how forward genetics in mice can be used to explore dermatologic disease. We outline mouse mutagenesis with the chemical N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea and the strategy used to instantaneously identify mutations that are causative of specific phenotypes. Furthermore, we summarize the types of phenotypic screens that can be performed to explore various aspects of dermatologic disease.

Enhanced susceptibility to chemically induced colitis caused by excessive endosomal TLR signaling in LRBA-deficient mice.

LPS-responsive beige-like anchor (LRBA) protein deficiency in humans causes immune dysregulation resulting in autoimmunity, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), hypogammaglobulinemia, regulatory T (Treg) cell defects, and B cell functional defects, but the cellular and molecular mechanisms responsible are incompletely understood. In an ongoing forward genetic screen for N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU)-induced mutations that increase susceptibility to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice, we identified two nonsense mutations in Lrba Although Treg cells have been a main focus in LRBA research to date, we found that dendritic cells (DCs) contribute significantly to DSS-induced intestinal inflammation in LRBA-deficient mice. Lrba-/- DCs exhibited excessive IRF3/7- and PI3K/mTORC1-dependent signaling and type I IFN production in response to the stimulation of the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) 3, TLR7, and TLR9. Substantial reductions in cytokine expression and sensitivity to DSS in LRBA-deficient mice were caused by knockout of Unc93b1, a chaperone necessary for trafficking of TLR3, TLR7, and TLR9 to endosomes. Our data support a function for LRBA in limiting endosomal TLR signaling and consequent intestinal inflammation.

LMBR1L regulates lymphopoiesis through Wnt/ß-catenin signaling.

Precise control of Wnt signaling is necessary for immune system development. In this study, we detected severely impaired development of all lymphoid lineages in mice, resulting from an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mutation in the limb region 1-like gene (Lmbr1l), which encodes a membrane-spanning protein with no previously described function in immunity. The interaction of LMBR1L with glycoprotein 78 (GP78) and ubiquitin-associated domain-containing protein 2 (UBAC2) attenuated Wnt signaling in lymphocytes by preventing the maturation of FZD6 and LRP6 through ubiquitination within the endoplasmic reticulum and by stabilizing "destruction complex" proteins. LMBR1L-deficient T cells exhibited hallmarks of Wnt/ß-catenin activation and underwent apoptotic cell death in response to proliferative stimuli. LMBR1L has an essential function during lymphopoiesis and lymphoid activation, acting as a negative regulator of the Wnt/ß-catenin pathway.

The class I myosin MYO1D binds to lipid and protects against colitis.

Myosin ID (MYO1D) is a member of the class I myosin family. We screened 48,649 third generation (G3) germline mutant mice derived from N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-mutagenized grandsires for intestinal homeostasis abnormalities after oral administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS). We found and validated mutations in Myo1d as a cause of increased susceptibility to DSS-induced colitis. MYO1D is produced in the intestinal epithelium, and the colitis phenotype is dependent on the nonhematopoietic compartment of the mouse. Moreover, MYO1D appears to couple cytoskeletal elements to lipid in an ATP-dependent manner. These findings demonstrate that MYO1D is needed to maintain epithelial integrity and protect against DSS-induced colitis.

Probability of phenotypically detectable protein damage by ENU-induced mutations in the Mutagenetix database.

Computational inference of mutation effects is necessary for genetic studies in which many mutations must be considered as etiologic candidates. Programs such as PolyPhen-2 predict the relative severity of damage caused by missense mutations, but not the actual probability that a mutation will reduce/eliminate protein function. Based on genotype and phenotype data for 116,330 ENU-induced mutations in the Mutagenetix database, we calculate that putative null mutations, and PolyPhen-2-classified "probably damaging", "possibly damaging", or "probably benign" mutations have, respectively, 61%, 17%, 9.8%, and 4.5% probabilities of causing phenotypically detectable damage in the homozygous state. We use these probabilities in the estimation of genome saturation and the probability that individual proteins have been adequately tested for function in specific genetic screens. We estimate the proportion of essential autosomal genes in Mus musculus (C57BL/6J) and show that viable mutations in essential genes are more likely to induce phenotype than mutations in non-essential genes.

HCFC2 is needed for IRF1- and IRF2-dependent Tlr3 transcription and for survival during viral infections.

Transcriptional regulation of numerous interferon-regulated genes, including Toll-like receptor 3 (Tlr3), which encodes an innate immune sensor of viral double-stranded RNA, depends on the interferon regulatory factor 1 (IRF1) and IRF2 transcription factors. We detected specific abrogation of macrophage responses to polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) resulting from three independent N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mutations in host cell factor C2 (Hcfc2). Hcfc2 mutations compromised survival during influenza virus and herpes simplex virus 1 infections. HCFC2 promoted the binding of IRF1 and IRF2 to the Tlr3 promoter, without which inflammatory cytokine and type I IFN responses to the double-stranded RNA analogue poly(I:C) are reduced in mouse macrophages. HCFC2 was also necessary for the transcription of a large subset of other IRF2-dependent interferon-regulated genes. Deleterious mutations of Hcfc2 may therefore increase susceptibility to diverse infectious diseases.

Skin-specific regulation of SREBP processing and lipid biosynthesis by glycerol kinase 5.

The recessive N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-induced phenotype toku is characterized by delayed hair growth, progressive hair loss, and excessive accumulation of dermal cholesterol, triglycerides, and ceramides. The toku phenotype was attributed to a null allele of Gk5, encoding glycerol kinase 5 (GK5), a skin-specific kinase expressed predominantly in sebaceous glands. GK5 formed a complex with the sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs) through their C-terminal regulatory domains, inhibiting SREBP processing and activation. In Gk5toku/toku mice, transcriptionally active SREBPs accumulated in the skin, but not in the liver; they were localized to the nucleus and led to elevated lipid synthesis and subsequent hair growth defects. Similar defective hair growth was observed in kinase-inactive GK5 mutant mice. Hair growth defects of homozygous toku mice were partially rescued by treatment with the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor simvastatin. GK5 exists as part of a skin-specific regulatory mechanism for cholesterol biosynthesis, independent of cholesterol regulation elsewhere in the body.

Creatine maintains intestinal homeostasis and protects against colitis.

Creatine, a nitrogenous organic acid, replenishes cytoplasmic ATP at the expense of mitochondrial ATP via the phosphocreatine shuttle. Creatine levels are maintained by diet and endogenous synthesis from arginine and glycine. Glycine amidinotransferase (GATM) catalyzes the rate-limiting step of creatine biosynthesis: the transfer of an amidino group from arginine to glycine to form ornithine and guanidinoacetate. We screened 36,530 third-generation germline mutant mice derived from N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-mutagenized grandsires for intestinal homeostasis abnormalities after oral administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS). Among 27 colitis susceptibility phenotypes identified and mapped, one was strongly correlated with a missense mutation in Gatm in a recessive model of inheritance, and causation was confirmed by CRISPR/Cas9 gene targeting. Supplementation of homozygous Gatm mutants with exogenous creatine ameliorated the colitis phenotype. CRISPR/Cas9-targeted (Gatmc/c ) mice displayed a normal peripheral immune response and immune cell homeostasis. However, the intestinal epithelium of the Gatmc/c mice displayed increased cell death and decreased proliferation during DSS treatment. In addition, Gatmc/c colonocytes showed increased metabolic stress in response to DSS with higher levels of phospho-AMPK and lower levels of phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (phospho-mTOR). These findings establish an in vivo requirement for rapid replenishment of cytoplasmic ATP within colonic epithelial cells in the maintenance of the mucosal barrier after injury.

IgD class switching is initiated by microbiota and limited to mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue in mice.

Class-switch recombination (CSR) alters the Ig isotype to diversify antibody effector functions. IgD CSR is a rare event, and its regulation is poorly understood. We report that deficiency of 53BP1, a DNA damage-response protein, caused age-dependent overproduction of secreted IgD resulting from increased IgD CSR exclusively within B cells of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues. IgD overproduction was dependent on activation-induced cytidine deaminase, hematopoietic MyD88 expression, and an intact microbiome, against which circulating IgD, but not IgM, was reactive. IgD CSR occurred via both alternative nonhomologous end-joining and homologous recombination pathways. Microbiota-dependent IgD CSR also was detected in nasal-associated lymphoid tissue of WT mice. These results identify a pathway, present in WT mice and hyperactivated in 53BP1-deficient mice, by which microbiota signal via Toll-like receptors to elicit IgD CSR.

Glycosylation of rhodopsin is necessary for its stability and incorporation into photoreceptor outer segment discs.

Rhodopsin, a G-protein coupled receptor, most abundant protein in retinal rod photoreceptors, is glycosylated at asparagines-2 and 15 on its N-terminus. To understand the role of rhodopsin's glycosylation in vivo, we generated and characterized a transgenic mouse model that expresses a non-glycosylated form of rhodopsin. We show that lack of glycosylation triggers a dominant form of progressive retinal degeneration. Electron microscopic examination of retinas at postnatal day 17 revealed the presence of vacuolar structures that distorted rod photoreceptor outer segments and became more prominent with age. Expression of non-glycosylated rhodopsin alone showed that it is unstable and is regulated via ubiquitin-mediated proteasomal degradation at the base of outer segments. We observed similar vacuolization in outer segments of transgenic mice expressing human rhodopsin with a T17M mutation (hT17M), suggesting that the mechanism responsible for the degenerative process in mice expressing the non-glycosylated rhodopsin and the RHO(hT17M) mice is likely the cause of phenotype observed in retinitis pigmentosa patients carrying T17M mutation.

MicroRNA-200b downregulates oxidation resistance 1 (Oxr1) expression in the retina of type 1 diabetes model.

PURPOSE: MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are known to participate in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression and are involved in multiple pathogenic processes. Here, we identified miRNA expression changes in the retinas of Akita mice, a genetic model of type 1 diabetes, and investigated the potential role of miRNA in diabetic retinopathy. METHODS: Visual function of Akita and control mice was evaluated by electroretinography. MiRNA expression changes in the retinas of Akita mice were identified by miRNA-specific microarray and confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). The potential downstream targets of identified miRNAs were predicted by bioinformatic analysis using web-based applications and confirmed by dual luciferase assay. The mRNA and protein changes of identified downstream targets were examined by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis. RESULTS: MiRNA-specific microarray and qRT-PCR showed that miR-200b was upregulated significantly in the Akita mouse retina. Sequence analysis and luciferase assay identified oxidation resistance 1 (Oxr1) as a downstream target gene regulated by miR-200b. In a human Müller cell line, MIO-M1, transfection of a miR-200b mimic downregulated Oxr1 expression. Conversely, transfection of MIO-M1 with a miR-200b inhibitor resulted in upregulated Oxr1. Furthermore, overexpression of recombinant Oxr1 attenuated oxidative stress marker, nitration of cellular proteins, and ameliorated apoptosis induced by 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), an oxidative stressor. Similarly, transfection of a miR-200b inhibitor decreased, whereas transfection of miR-200b mimic increased the number of apoptotic cells following 4-HNE treatment. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that miR-200b-regulated Oxr1 potentially has a protective role in diabetic retinopathy.

ENU-induced phenovariance in mice: inferences from 587 mutations.

BACKGROUND: We present a compendium of N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU)-induced mouse mutations, identified in our laboratory over a period of 10 years either on the basis of phenotype or whole genome and/or whole exome sequencing, and archived in the Mutagenetix database. Our purpose is threefold: 1) to formally describe many point mutations, including those that were not previously disclosed in peer-reviewed publications; 2) to assess the characteristics of these mutations; and 3) to estimate the likelihood that a missense mutation induced by ENU will create a detectable phenotype. FINDINGS: In the context of an ENU mutagenesis program for C57BL/6J mice, a total of 185 phenotypes were tracked to mutations in 129 genes. In addition, 402 incidental mutations were identified and predicted to affect 390 genes. As previously reported, ENU shows strand asymmetry in its induction of mutations, particularly favoring T to A rather than A to T in the sense strand of coding regions and splice junctions. Some amino acid substitutions are far more likely to be damaging than others, and some are far more likely to be observed. Indeed, from among a total of 494 non-synonymous coding mutations, ENU was observed to create only 114 of the 182 possible amino acid substitutions that single base changes can achieve. Based on differences in overt null allele frequencies observed in phenotypic vs. non-phenotypic mutation sets, we infer that ENU-induced missense mutations create detectable phenotype only about 1 in 4.7 times. While the remaining mutations may not be functionally neutral, they are, on average, beneath the limits of detection of the phenotypic assays we applied. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, these mutations add to our understanding of the chemical specificity of ENU, the types of amino acid substitutions it creates, and its efficiency in causing phenovariance. Our data support the validity of computational algorithms for the prediction of damage caused by amino acid substitutions, and may lead to refined predictions as to whether specific amino acid changes are responsible for observed phenotypes. These data form the basis for closer in silico estimations of the number of genes mutated to a state of phenovariance by ENU within a population of G3 mice.

Identification of a novel inhibitor of the canonical Wnt pathway.

Wnt signaling is known to regulate multiple processes including angiogenesis, inflammation, and fibrosis. Here, we identified a novel inhibitor of the Wnt pathway, pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), a multifunctional serine proteinase inhibitor. Both overexpression of PEDF in transgenic mice and administration of PEDF protein attenuated Wnt signaling induced by retinal ischemia. Furthermore, PEDF knockdown by small interfering RNA (siRNA) and PEDF knockout in PEDF(-/-) mice induced activation of Wnt signaling. PEDF bound to LRP6, a Wnt coreceptor, with high affinity (K(d) [dissociation constant] of 3.7 nM) and blocked the Wnt signaling induced by Wnt ligand. The physical interaction of PEDF with LRP6 was confirmed by a coprecipitation assay, which showed that PEDF bound to LRP6 at the E1E2 domain. In addition, binding of PEDF to LRP6 blocked Wnt ligand-induced LRP6-Frizzled receptor dimerization, an essential step in Wnt signaling. These results suggest that PEDF is an endogenous antagonist of LRP6, and blocking Wnt signaling may represent a novel mechanism for its protective effects against diabetic retinopathy.

Lack of protein-tyrosine sulfation disrupts photoreceptor outer segment morphogenesis, retinal function and retinal anatomy.

To investigate the role(s) of protein-tyrosine sulfation in the retina, we examined retinal function and structure in mice lacking tyrosylprotein sulfotransferases (TPST) 1 and 2. Tpst double knockout (DKO; Tpst1(-/-) /Tpst2 (-/-) ) retinas had drastically reduced electroretinographic responses, although their photoreceptors exhibited normal responses in single cell recordings. These retinas appeared normal histologically; however, the rod photoreceptors had ultrastructurally abnormal outer segments, with membrane evulsions into the extracellular space, irregular disc membrane spacing and expanded intradiscal space. Photoreceptor synaptic terminals were disorganized in Tpst DKO retinas, but established ultrastructurally normal synapses, as did bipolar and amacrine cells; however, the morphology and organization of neuronal processes in the inner retina were abnormal. These results indicate that protein-tyrosine sulfation is essential for proper outer segment morphogenesis and synaptic function, but is not critical for overall retinal structure or synapse formation, and may serve broader functions in neuronal development and maintenance.

Rhodopsin: the functional significance of asn-linked glycosylation and other post-translational modifications.

Rhodopsin, the G-protein coupled receptor in retinal rod photoreceptors, is a highly conserved protein that undergoes several types of post-translational modifications. These modifications are essential to maintain the protein's structure as well as its proper function in the visual transduction cycle. Rhodopsin is N-glycosylated at Asn-2 and Asn-15 in its extracellular N-terminal domain. Mutations within the glycosylation consensus sequences of rhodopsin cause autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa, a disease that leads to blindness. Several groups have studied the role of rhodopsin's N-linked glycan chains in protein structure and function using a variety of approaches. These include the generation of a transgenic mouse model, study of a naturally occurring mutant animal model, in vivo pharmacological inhibition of glycosylation, and in vitro analyses using transfected COS-1 cells. These studies have provided insights into the possible role of rhodopsin glycosylation, but have yielded conflicting results.

Interleukin 6 indirectly induces keratinocyte migration.

IL-6-deficient transgenic mice (IL-6 KO) display significantly delayed cutaneous wound healing. To further elucidate the role of IL-6 in skin wound healing, epidermal keratinocyte and dermal fibroblast cells were isolated from neonatal IL-6 KO mice and treated with rmIL-6. It was found that rmIL-6 alone did not significantly modulate the proliferation or migration of cultured IL-6 KO keratinocytes. rmIL-6, however, significantly induced the migration of IL-6 KO keratinocytes (up to 5-fold) when co-cultured with dermal fibroblasts. Culture supernatants from IL-6-treated fibroblasts were also found to induce the migration of keratinocytes to a similar degree. Genomics analysis of treated fibroblasts indicated that rmIL-6 does not induce any known soluble keratinocyte migratory factors. rmIL-6 treatment of fibroblast, however, induced a rapid and sustained phosphorylation of STAT3 protein. These data indicate that IL-6 could influence wound healing by inducing keratinocyte migration through the production of a soluble fibroblast-derived factor, and its activity may be associated with STAT3 activation.