REDUCE missed oral healthcare: The outcomes of and learnings from an implementation project in an acute geriatric unit.

Oral healthcare is one of the most missed aspects of fundamental care. Failure to provide reliable and effective daily oral healthcare for older patients can lead to hospital-acquired pneumonias, longer hospital stays, increased health costs, and poor patient experience. The objective of this study was to codesign, implement, and evaluate an oral healthcare intervention for older adults in a geriatric unit. This mixed methods implementation project combined the hospital's quality improvement processes with the i-PARIHS knowledge translation framework. Multilevel facilitation guided the development of multidisciplinary implementation strategies, which were co-designed, tailored, and implemented at the ward and organizational level, targeting: awareness/engagement; clinical guideline development; building workforce capacity; access to appropriate products; patient awareness and support; utilization of multidisciplinary/dental referral pathways; and systematizing oral healthcare documentation. Gaps between evidence-based and current oral healthcare practice were identified through audits of practice and interviews with patients. Interviews and surveys with staff evaluated the feasibility and acceptability of the oral healthcare intervention and the success of implementation strategies. At the conclusion of the project, awareness, attitudes, and capacity of staff had increased, however, we could not demonstrate change in multidisciplinary oral healthcare practices or improvements for individual patients. Despite mixed success, the project informed discussions about including oral healthcare as a national healthcare standard for the acute care sector in Australia. Attempts to address oral healthcare may have started locally, but its impact was through policy change, which will empower health practitioners and managers to support practice change more widely.

Cardiac rehabilitation for children and young people (CardioActive): protocol for a single-blind randomised feasibility and acceptability study of a centre-based cardiac rehabilitation programme versus usual care in 11-16 years with heart conditions.

BACKGROUND: Congenital heart conditions are among the most common non-communicable diseases in children and young people (CYP), affecting 13.9 million CYP globally. While survival rates are increasing, support for young people adjusting to life with a heart condition is lacking. Furthermore, one in three CYP with heart conditions also experiences anxiety, depression or adjustment disorder, for which little support is offered. While adults are offered cardiac rehabilitation (CR) to support their mental and physical health, this is not offered for CYP.One way to overcome this is to evaluate a CR programme comprising exercise with mental health support (CardioActive; CA) for CYP with heart conditions. The exercise and mental health components are informed by the metacognitive model, which has been shown to be effective in treating anxiety and depression in CYP and associated with improving psychological outcomes in adult CR. METHOD AND ANALYSIS: The study is a single-blind parallel randomised feasibility trial comparing a CR programme (CA) plus usual care against usual care alone with 100 CYP (50 per arm) aged 11-16 diagnosed with a heart condition. CA will include six group exercise, lifestyle and mental health modules. Usual care consists of routine outpatient management. Participants will be assessed at three time points: baseline, 3-month (post-treatment) and 6-month follow-up. Primary outcomes are feasibility and acceptability (ie, referral rates, recruitment and retention rates, attendance at the intervention, rate of return and level of completion of follow-up data). Coprimary symptom outcomes (Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire and Paediatric Quality of Life) and a range of secondary outcomes will be administered at each time point. A nested qualitative study will investigate CYP, parents and healthcare staff views of CR and its components, and staff's experience of delivering CA. Preliminary health economic data will be collected to inform future cost-effectiveness analyses. Descriptive data on study processes and clinical outcomes will be reported. Data analysis will follow intention to treat. Qualitative data will be analysed using thematic analysis and the theoretical framework of acceptability. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Ethical approval was granted on 14 February 2023 by the Greater Manchester East Research Ethics Committee (22/NW/0367). The results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, conference presentations and local dissemination. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ISRCTN50031147; NCT05968521.

More than a mouth to clean: Case studies of oral health care in an Australian hospital.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to explore older patients' oral health status, their opinions about oral health care and their experiences with oral health care while in hospital. BACKGROUND: Improving older adults' oral health is considered an urgent priority at both the national and international levels, especially for hospitalised older patients who have been found to have poor oral health. However, a one-size-fits-all standardised approach to oral care delivery may not be the answer. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study was an embedded, multiple-case study, integrating qualitative and quantitative data. Seven patients were recruited from a geriatric ward of an acute hospital in Australia and participated in semi-structured interviews and oral health assessments using the Oral Health Assessment Tool (OHAT) in June-July 2022. Data were analysed descriptively and presented in case summaries. RESULTS: OHAT assessments identified oral health problems in all patients, but not all patients self-reported problems with their mouths. Each patient valued oral health care, but the reasons given varied. Patients had established, individualised oral health care routines, which they brought to hospital. CONCLUSION: Clinical observations of patient's oral health status might not match the patient's own judgement of their oral health and, if not explicitly addressed, may mask the need for oral health and hygiene intervention. Assessment and care planning needs to incorporate patients' own perceptions of their oral health and existing oral health care routines. Oral health histories may provide a means of facilitating this person-centred oral health care for older patients in hospital.

The role of speech-language pathologists in frailty: An Australian qualitative study of perceptions, practices, and opportunities.

PURPOSE: Frailty is an important geriatric syndrome, yet the role of speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in identifying and managing frailty remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore the perspectives of SLPs regarding frailty, including enablers, barriers, and opportunities for multidisciplinary improvements to frailty prevention and management. METHOD: In this exploratory qualitative study, data were collected from SLPs through online semi-structured interviews and analysed using a qualitative descriptive approach. RESULT: Seven Australian SLPs from acute, rehabilitation, geriatric, and community settings were interviewed. Three overarching themes were created: (1) SLPs understand the clinical manifestation of frailty but do not use explicit language to describe it; (2) SLPs acknowledged the importance of addressing knowledge gaps and barriers in frailty management; and (3) SLPs do not currently have an established identity within the frailty field, but do have a role within the multidisciplinary team and the care of people living with frailty. CONCLUSION: Participants' understandings of frailty varied and highlighted the lack of education about frailty as barriers to effective service provision. Additional research is required to produce formal recommendations for SLPs regarding frailty management, which may include frailty education to SLPs and awareness of SLPs' role within the multidisciplinary team.

Clinical reasoning during dysphagia assessment and management in acute care: A longitudinal qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Competent clinical reasoning forms the foundation for effective and efficient clinical swallowing examination (CSE) and consequent dysphagia management decisions. While the nature of initial CSEs has been evaluated, it remains unclear how new information gathered by speech-language therapists (SLTs) throughout a patient's acute-care journey is integrated into their initial clinical reasoning and management processes and used to review and revise initial management recommendations. AIMS: To understand how SLTs' clinical reasoning and decision-making regarding dysphagia assessment and management evolve as patients transition through acute hospital care from referral to discharge. METHODS & PROCEDURES: A longitudinal, qualitative approach was employed to gather information from two SLTs who managed six patients at a metropolitan acute-care hospital. A retrospective 'think-aloud' protocol was utilized to prompt SLTs regarding their clinical reasoning and decision-making processes during initial and subsequent CSEs and patient interactions. Three types of concept maps were created based on these interviews: a descriptive concept map, a reasoning map and a hypothesis map. All concept maps were evaluated regarding their overall structure, facts gathered, types of reasoning engaged in (inductive versus deductive), types of hypotheses generated, and the diagnosis and management recommendations made following initial CSE and during subsequent dysphagia management. OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Initial CSEs involved a rich process of fact-gathering, that was predominantly led by inductive reasoning (hypothesis generation) and some application of deductive reasoning (hypothesis testing), with the primary aims of determining the presence of dysphagia and identifying the safest diet and fluid recommendations. During follow-up assessments, SLTs engaged in increasingly more deductive testing of initial hypotheses, including fact-gathering aimed at determining the tolerance of current diet and fluid recommendations or the suitability for diet and/or fluid upgrade and less inductive reasoning. Consistent with this aim, SLTs' hypotheses were focused primarily on airway protection and medical status during the follow-up phase. Overall, both initial and follow-up swallowing assessments were targeted primarily at identifying suitable management recommendations, and less so on identifying and formulating diagnoses. None of the patients presented with adverse respiratory and/or swallowing outcomes during admission and following discharge from speech pathology. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: Swallowing assessment and management across the acute-care journey was observed as a high-quality, patient-centred process characterized by iterative cycles of inductive and deductive reasoning. This approach appears to maximize efficiency without compromising the quality of care. The outcomes of this research encourage further investigation and translation to tertiary and post-professional education contexts as a clear understanding of the processes involved in reaching diagnoses and management recommendations can inform career-long refinement of clinical skills. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject SLTs' clinical reasoning processes during initial CSE employ iterative cycles of inductive and deductive reasoning, reflecting a patient-centred assessment process. To date it is unknown how SLTs engage in clinical reasoning during follow-up assessments of swallowing function, how they assess the appropriateness of initial management recommendations and how this relates to patient outcomes. What this paper adds to the existing knowledge Our longitudinal evaluation of clinical reasoning and decision-making patterns related to swallowing management in acute care demonstrated that SLTs tailored their processes to each patient's presentation. There was an emphasis on monitoring the suitability of the initial management recommendations and the potential for upgrade of diet or compensatory swallowing strategies. The iterative cycles of inductive and deductive reasoning reflect efficient decision-making processes that maintain high-quality clinical care within the acute environment. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Employing efficient and high-quality clinical reasoning is a hallmark of good dysphagia practice in maximizing positive patient outcomes. Developing approaches to understanding and making explicit clinical reasoning processes of experienced clinicians may assist SLTs of all developmental stages to provide high standards of care.

Mental Health Nurses Who Experience Disabilities: Adapting to Workplace Barriers.

Mental health nurses with disabilities experience discrimination and issues with inclusion and accessibility. Ten mental health nurses who self-identified with a disability were interviewed using interpretive description to gain insight into their experiences and to better understand practices that promote inclusion. Participants discussed challenges associated with the mental healthcare system, the need to adapt, and the importance of support and feeling accepted. To improve accessibility and inclusion of mental health nurses, the system requires increased flexibility. This would benefit all nurses and those who are cared for by them.

Implementing a Screen-Clean-Hydrate bundle of care for improving swallow screening, oral health, and hydration in acute stroke: Protocol for a Type 2 hybrid-effectiveness pre-post study.

Stroke clinical guidelines recommend care processes that optimize patient outcomes and minimize hospital-acquired complications. However, audits and surveys illustrate that recommended care is not always consistently or thoroughly implemented. This paper outlines the methods for implementing and evaluating a new bundle of care. Screen-Clean-Hydrate bundles together recommendations from the Australian Clinical Guidelines for Stroke Management and supplements these with evidence-informed best practice from the literature for: swallow screening within 4 h of presentation to hospital (Screen); oral health assessment and delivery of oral care (Clean); and hydration assessment and management (Hydrate). The study is a pre-post Type 2 hybrid effectiveness/implementation design with an embedded process evaluation, which will be conducted in two acute stroke units in a capital city of Australia. The integrated-Promoting Action on Research Implementation in Health Services (iPARIHS) framework will be used to guide study design, conduct, and evaluation. Clinical effectiveness will be measured by rates of hospital-acquired complications and proxy measures of cost (length of stay, procedure costs) for 60 patient participants pre- and postimplementation. Implementation outcomes will focus on acceptability, feasibility, uptake and fidelity, and identification of barriers and enablers to implementation through staff interviews, medical record audits, and researcher field notes. Due to its design as a hybrid effectiveness/implementation study, once completed, the study will provide information on both intervention and implementation effectiveness, including details of successful and unsuccessful multidisciplinary implementation strategies. This will inform a larger multisite effectiveness/implementation trial for future upscale, leading to improved compliance with stroke guidelines and therefore stroke outcomes.

Sex differences in pituitary corticotroph excitability.

Stress-related illness represents a major burden on health and society. Sex differences in stress-related disorders are well documented, with women having twice the lifetime rate of depression compared to men and most anxiety disorders. Anterior pituitary corticotrophs are central components of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, receiving input from hypothalamic neuropeptides corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) and arginine vasopressin (AVP), while regulating glucocorticoid output from the adrenal cortex. The dynamic control of electrical excitability by CRH/AVP and glucocorticoids is critical for corticotroph function; however, whether corticotrophs contribute to sexually differential responses of the HPA axis, which might underlie differences in stress-related disorders, is very poorly understood. Using perforated patch clamp electrophysiology in corticotrophs from mice expressing green fluorescent protein under the control of the Pomc promoter, we characterized basal and secretagogue-evoked excitability. Both male and female corticotrophs show predominantly single-spike action potentials under basal conditions; however, males predominantly display spikes with small-amplitude (<20 mV) afterhyperpolarizations (B-type), whereas females displayed a mixture of B-type spikes and spikes with a large-amplitude (>25 mV) afterhyperpolarization (A-type). In response to CRH, or CRH/AVP, male cells almost exclusively transition to a predominantly pseudo-plateau bursting, whereas only female B-type cells display bursting in response to CRH±AVP. Treatment of male or female corticotrophs with 1 nM estradiol (E2) for 24-72 h has no effect on the proportion of cells with A- or B-type spikes in either sex. However, E2 results in the cessation of CRH-induced bursting in both male and female corticotrophs, which can be partially reversed by adding a BK current using a dynamic clamp. RNA-seq analysis of purified corticotrophs reveals extensive differential gene expression at the transcriptional level, including more than 71 mRNAs encoding ion channel subunits. Interestingly, there is a two-fold lower level (p < 0.01) of BK channel pore-forming subunit (Kcnma1) expression in females compared to males, which may partially explain the decrease in CRH-induced bursting. This study identified sex differences at the level of the anterior pituitary corticotroph ion channel landscape and control of both spontaneous and CRH-evoked excitability. Determining the mechanisms of sex differences of corticotroph and HPA activity at the cellular level could be an important step for better understanding, diagnosing, and treating stress-related disorders.

A scoping review of the use of visual tools and adapted easy-read approaches in Quality-of-Life instruments for adults.

PURPOSE: Self-Reporting using traditional text-based Quality-of-Life (QoL) instruments can be difficult for people living with sensory impairments, communication challenges or changes to their cognitive capacity. Adapted communication techniques, such as Easy-Read techniques, or use of pictures could remove barriers to participation for a wide range of people. This review aimed to identify published studies reporting adapted communication approaches for measuring QoL, the methodology used in their development and validation among adult populations. METHODS: A scoping review of the literature using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews checklist was undertaken. RESULTS: The initial search strategy identified 13,275 articles for screening, with 264 articles identified for full text review. Of these 243 articles were excluded resulting in 21 studies for inclusion. The majority focused on the development of an instrument (12 studies) or a combination of development with some aspect of validation or psychometric testing (7 studies). Nineteen different instruments were identified by the review, thirteen were developed from previously developed generic or condition-specific quality of life instruments, predominantly aphasia (7 studies) and disability (4 studies). Most modified instruments included adaptations to both the original questions, as well as the response categories. CONCLUSIONS: Studies identified in this scoping review demonstrate that several methods have been successfully applied e.g. with people living with aphasia post-stroke and people living with a disability, which potentially could be adapted for application with more diverse populations. A cohesive and interdisciplinary approach to the development and validation of communication accessible versions of QOL instruments, is needed to support widespread application, thereby reducing reliance on proxy assessors and promoting self-assessment of QOL across multiple consumer groups and sectors.

Dysphagia-related acute stroke complications: A retrospective observational cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Post-stroke dysphagia is associated with aspiration pneumonia, but strategies intended to mitigate this complication, such as oral intake modifications, may unintentionally lead to dehydration-related complications such as urinary tract infections (UTIs) and constipation. This study aimed to determine the rates of aspiration pneumonia, dehydration, UTI and constipation in a large cohort of acute stroke patients and the independent predictors of each complication. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were extracted retrospectively for 31,953 acute stroke patients admitted to six hospitals in Adelaide, South Australia over a 20-year period. Tests of difference compared rates of complications between patients with and without dysphagia. Multiple logistic regression modelling explored variables that significantly predicted each complication. RESULTS: In this consecutive cohort of acute stroke patients, with a mean (SD) age of 73.8 (13.8) years and 70.2% presenting with ischaemic stroke, rates of complications were: aspiration pneumonia (6.5%); dehydration (6.7%); UTI (10.1%); and constipation (4.4%). Each complication was significantly more prevalent for patients with dysphagia compared to those without. Controlling for demographic and other clinical variables, the presence of dysphagia independently predicted aspiration pneumonia (OR=2.61, 95% CI 2.21-3.07; p<.001), dehydration (OR=2.05, 95% CI 1.76-2.38; p<.001), UTI (OR=1.34, 95% CI 1.16-1.56; p<.001), and constipation (OR=1.30, 95% CI 1.07-1.59; p=.009). Additional predictive factors were increased age and prolonged hospitalisation. CONCLUSIONS: Aspiration pneumonia, dehydration, UTI, and constipation are common acute sequelae of stroke and independently associated with dysphagia. Future dysphagia intervention initiatives may utilise these reported complication rates to evaluate their impact on all four adverse health complications.

Exploring oral care practices, barriers, and facilitators in an inpatient stroke unit: a thematic analysis.

PURPOSE: Oral care is essential to support the health and rehabilitation of stroke survivors but is often performed poorly in the inpatient setting. This article examines the current practices, barriers and facilitators to oral care on an Australian stroke unit to inform future knowledge translation interventions within this setting. METHODS: Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with nursing staff members and speech-language pathologists with experience delivering oral care to stroke survivors. Reflexive thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. RESULTS: Three themes were developed from the data. In the first theme, participants described current oral care practices within their stroke unit and acknowledged that there is room for improvement. In the second theme, participants identified the multiple overlapping barriers to oral care delivery on the ward. Finally, the third theme explored participants' suggestions for improving oral care, including both local and organisational change. CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the complexities of oral care in the inpatient stroke setting and gives voice to the perspectives of nursing and speech-language pathology staff. It is clear that future oral health interventions in this setting require a comprehensive approach to addressing barriers and should prioritise the concerns of staff delivering the care.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONThe delivery of good oral care post-stroke is essential, but in practice is difficult due to limited time and supplies, inadequate education, fear of harm to patient and self, and perceived low priority of the care.Speech-language pathologists are often involved in oral care, but their role is not clearly delineated, and they are not provided with formal training in oral care provision.Oral care interventions should be comprehensive, including organisational policies, clear practice guidelines, structured multi-disciplinary education, and appropriate supplies.

Behavioral Interventions Targeting Base of Tongue to Posterior Pharyngeal Wall Approximation: A Scoping Review.

Pharyngeal pressure generated by approximation of the base of tongue to the posterior pharyngeal wall (BOT-PPW approximation) is critical for efficient pharyngeal bolus passage and is a frequent goal of dysphagia management. This scoping review evaluated behavioral interventions available to improve BOT-PPW approximation. We searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, Ovid Emcare, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and ProQuest for studies that met the following criteria: (i) behavioral interventions targeting BOT-PPW approximation, which (ii) were assessed using BOT-PPW-specific outcome measures, and (iiia) performed over a period of time (Review Part 1) or (iiib) studied immediate effects (Review Part 2). Study quality was rated using the GRADE framework. Data were extracted and synthesized into dominant themes. Of the 150 studies originally identified, three examined long-term effects (two single cases studies of individuals with dysphagia, and a third study evaluating effortful swallowing in healthy individuals). BOT-PPW approximation only increased in the two single case studies. Twenty-one studies evaluating immediate effects were categorized as follows: (1) effortful swallowing, (2) Mendelsohn maneuver, (3) tongue-hold maneuver, (4) super supraglottic swallowing maneuver, and (5) non-swallowing exercises. Across all studies, varying levels of success in increasing BOT-PPW approximation were reported. Four of 21 immediate effects studies evaluated patients with demonstrated swallowing impairment, whereas 17 studies evaluated healthy adults. Quality assessment revealed low strength of the existing evidence base. The evidence base for rehabilitative interventions targeting BOT-PPW approximation is severely limited and translation is hindered by small sample sizes and methodological limitations. Further clinical research is warranted.

A New Perspective on Regulation of Pituitary Plasticity: The Network of SOX2-Positive Cells May Coordinate Responses to Challenge.

Plasticity of function is required for each of the anterior pituitary endocrine axes to support alterations in the demand for hormone with physiological status and in response to environmental challenge. This plasticity is mediated at the pituitary level by a change in functional cell mass resulting from a combination of alteration in the proportion of responding cells, the amount of hormone secreted from each cell, and the total number of cells within an endocrine cell population. The functional cell mass also depends on its organization into structural and functional networks. The mechanisms underlying alteration in gland output depend on the strength of the stimulus and are axis dependent but in all cases rely on sensing of output of the functional cell mass and its regulation. Here, we present evidence that the size of pituitary cell populations is constrained and suggest this is mediated by a form of quorum sensing. We propose that pituitary cell quorum sensing is mediated by interactions between the networks of endocrine cells and hormone-negative SOX2-positive (SOX2+ve) cells and speculate that the latter act as both a sentinel and actuator of cell number. Evidence for a role of the network of SOX2+ve cells in directly regulating secretion from multiple endocrine cell networks suggests that it also regulates other aspects of the endocrine cell functional mass. A decision-making role of SOX2+ve cells would allow precise coordination of pituitary axes, essential for their appropriate response to physiological status and challenge, as well as prioritization of axis modification.

The Multifaceted Melanocortin Receptors.

The 5 known melanocortin receptors (MCs) have established physiological roles. With the exception of MC2, these receptors can behave unpredictably, and since they are more widely expressed than their established roles would suggest, it is likely that they have other poorly characterized functions. The aim of this review is to discuss some of the less well-explored aspects of the 4 enigmatic members of this receptor family (MC1,3-5) and describe how these are multifaceted G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). These receptors appear to be promiscuous in that they bind several endogenous agonists (products of the proopiomelanocortin [POMC] gene) and antagonists but with inconsistent relative affinities and effects. We propose that this is a result of posttranslational modifications that determine receptor localization within nanodomains. Within each nanodomain there will be a variety of proteins, including ion channels, modifying proteins, and other GPCRs, that can interact with the MCs to alter the availability of receptor at the cell surface as well as the intracellular signaling resulting from receptor activation. Different combinations of interacting proteins and MCs may therefore give rise to the complex and inconsistent functional profiles reported for the MCs. For further progress in understanding this family, improved characterization of tissue-specific functions is required. Current evidence for interactions of these receptors with a range of partners, resulting in modulation of cell signaling, suggests that each should be studied within the full context of their interacting partners. The role of physiological status in determining this context also remains to be characterized.

Patient suitability for free water protocols in acute stroke and general medicine: a qualitative study of clinician perceptions.

BACKGROUND: The free water protocol (FWP) is an alternate management strategy for patients with dysphagia, who would otherwise be nil by mouth or prescribed thickened fluids, allowing them to drink and potentially aspirate water under strict guidelines to minimize the risk of adverse consequences. The FWP is not widely implemented in acute settings, and it is unclear whether this is due to the complexity of patient presentations, clinician decision-making or barriers related to the setting. AIMS: To explore the perceptions and decision-making process of clinicians about using FWPs to manage dysphagia for patients admitted to acute stroke and general medicine. METHODS & PROCEDURES: A qualitative, critical realist approach was adopted to allow for in-depth exploration of the perspectives of four dietitians, seven medical officers, eight registered nurses and 17 speech and language pathologists (SLPs) from three hospitals in a capital city of Australia. Data from semi-structured interviews were analysed using the Situated Clinical Decision-Making Framework (CDF). OUTCOMES & RESULTS: Participants were cautious about FWP for patients with neurological conditions, head and neck cancer, dementia, poor immunity, chronic or recurrent respiratory illness, and certain types of stroke. Medical status and the implications for aspiration were paramount, particularly respiratory status, oxygen supplementation, cognitive status, fatigue and mobility. Participants considered patient quality of life, preferences and choices for care, but indicated that factors influencing safety often outweighed patient preference for water. Indirect factors affecting decision-making included the roles of the multidisciplinary team, individual clinical experience and attitude to risk, and availability of supervision. CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: Despite the benefits of FWPs in other settings, in acute stroke and general medicine, clinicians erred on the side of safety and, in most cases, would not implement an FWP. Future clinical research is needed to systematically design high-quality and feasible clinical trials to determine the benefits and safety of FWPs for patients with dysphagia in these settings. This would lay the foundations for guidelines to support the complex clinical decision-making regarding patient suitability for FWPs. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on the subject FWPs are an alternate management strategy for patients with dysphagia, with systematic reviews recommending their use for adults in inpatient rehabilitation with a low risk of pneumonia. However, evidence from the acute setting is sparse, leaving clinicians unsure about which patients might benefit and which may inadvertently be exposed to increased risk by an FWP. What this paper adds to existing knowledge Participants from all interviewed disciplines agreed that SLPs lead the decision-making process and as such act as 'gatekeepers' for access to an FWP. The decision-making process is complex, and participants acknowledged that disease conditions and illnesses were often used as exclusionary criteria. Although participants reported favourably on the benefits of FWPs, their decision-making privileged risk aversion over patient preference in most settings, except for palliative care. Lack of clinical guidelines and research evidence in acute care settings, as well as the focus on risk aversion, appear to perpetually reinforce the avoidance of FWP in these settings. Of note, more senior clinicians acknowledged being more deliberately guided by patient preference; hence, leadership by senior clinicians appears critical for change in practice in this space. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? If evidence about the safety of FWP in the acute settings is to be collected, a systematic approach to addressing the present barriers is warranted. This may allow rigorous clinical trials to proceed and potentially lead to best-practice guidelines for dysphagia management options for wider populations of patients.

Behavioral Interventions Targeting Insufficient Upper Esophageal Sphincter Opening During Swallowing: A Scoping Review.

The upper esophageal sphincter (UES) plays a central role in safe swallowing. Impaired UES opening is commonly observed in individuals presenting with impaired swallowing and various interventions are available aiming to improve bolus passage across the UES during swallowing. This scoping review addressed the following question: Which behavioral interventions are available to improve UES opening for deglutition? We searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, Ovid Emcare, Web of Science, SCOPUS and ProQuest for studies that met the following criteria: i. behavioral interventions targeting UES opening ii. performed over a period of time, which iii. were assessed using UES specific outcome measures. Study quality was assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute and GRADE frameworks. Data were extracted and synthesized into dominant themes. Of the 357 studies originally identified, 15 met inclusion criteria and reported interventions that were grouped into four intervention types: (1) floor of mouth exercises that were sub-categorized into the Shaker exercise and other strengthening exercises, (2) Mendelsohn maneuver, (3) lingual exercises and (4) mixed exercise paradigms. Across the included studies, varying levels of success in improving various aspects of UES opening metrics were reported. Nine of 15 studies evaluated patients with demonstrated swallowing impairment, whereas six studies evaluated healthy adults. Quality assessment revealed significant variability in study quality, unclear reporting of participant training and treatment fidelity, as well as training dosage. The evidence base for the four behavioral intervention approaches targeting deglutitive UES opening is limited. The translation of existing evidence to clinical practice is hindered by small sample sizes and methodological limitations. Further research in this space is warranted.

Implementation of free water protocols in acute care: An observation of practice.

Purpose: Evidence supporting free water protocols (FWP) in acute settings is limited and the potential risks and benefits for acutely ill patients are not well understood. This study aimed to observe how and with whom FWPs are implemented in acute stroke and general medical units.Method: Mixed methods parallel case study design. Medical and nursing records were evaluated for information pertaining to the implementation of the FWP and outcomes for three patients. Semi-structured interviews conducted with three patient-nurse-speech-language pathologist triads focussed on clinical decision-making and barriers and enablers to FWP implementation. Data were analysed descriptively and triangulated across sources.Result: Patients identified as suitable for a FWP had markedly different presentations to those described in the evidence-base and FWP were consequently significantly adapted. Although patients were permitted water, they received and consumed very small amounts. Speech-language pathologists and nurses identified more barriers than enablers to FWP implementation; cognitive impairments, reliance on others and insufficient documentation were perceived as the key barriers, while clear verbal communication was identified as a facilitator.Conclusion: Overall the findings suggest FWP implementation in the acute care setting is hindered by a lack of standardised procedures and current evidence-base that would otherwise inform best practice.

The prevalence of post-extubation dysphagia in critically ill adults: an Australian data linkage study.

Objective: To define the prevalence of dysphagia after endotracheal intubation in critically ill adult patients. Design: A retrospective observational data linkage cohort study using the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Adult Patient Database and a mandatory government statewide health care administration database. Setting: Private and public intensive care units (ICUs) within Victoria, Australia. Participants: Adult patients who required endotracheal intubation for the purpose of mechanical ventilation within a Victorian ICU between July 2013 and June 2018. Main outcome measures: Presence of dysphagia, aspiration pneumonia, ICU length of stay, hospital length of stay, and cost per episode of care. Results: Endotracheal intubation in the ICU was required for 71 124 patient episodes across the study period. Dysphagia was coded in 7.3% (n = 5203) of those episodes. Patients with dysphagia required longer ICU (median, 154 [interquartile range (IQR), 78-259] v 53 [IQR, 27-107] hours; P < 0.001) and hospital admissions (median, 20 [IQR, 13-30] v 8 [IQR, 5-15] days; P < 0.001), were more likely to develop aspiration pneumonia (17.2% v 5.6%; odds ratio, 3.0; 95% CI, 2.8-3.2; P < 0.001), and the median health care expenditure increased by 93% per episode of care ($73 586 v $38 108; P < 0.001) compared with patients without dysphagia. Conclusions: Post-extubation dysphagia is associated with adverse patient and health care outcomes. Consideration should be given to strategies that support early identification of patients with dysphagia in the ICU to determine if these adverse outcomes can be reduced.

Pregnancy influences the selection of appropriate reference genes in mouse tissue: Determination of appropriate reference genes for quantitative reverse transcription PCR studies in tissues from the female mouse reproductive axis.

Selecting stably expressed reference genes which are not affected by physiological or pathophysiological conditions is crucial for reliable quantification in gene expression studies. This study examined the expression stability of a panel of twelve reference genes in tissues from the female mouse reproductive axis and the uterus. Gene expression studies were carried out using reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). cDNA was synthesised from RNA extracted from hypothalami, pituitaries, ovaries and uteri of female mice at ages representing weaning, puberty and adulthood as well as pregnancy (13 ± 1 days post-coitus) (n = a minimum of 3 at each age and at pregnancy). The reference genes examined included 18 s, Actb, Atp5b, B2m, Canx, Cyc1, Eif4a2, Gapdh, Rpl13a, Sdha, Ubc and Ywhaz. The RT-qPCR raw data were imported into the qBASE+ software to analyse the expression stability using GeNorm. These data were also subsequently analysed using other software packages (Delta CT, Normfinder, BestKeeper). A comprehensive ranking was conducted considering all stability rankings generated from the different software analyses. B2m and Eif4a2 deviated from the acceptable range for amplification efficiency and therefore were excluded from the further analyses. The stability of the reference genes is influenced by the software used for the analysis with BestKeeper providing markedly different results than the other analyses. GeNorm analysis of tissues taken at different ages but not including pregnant animals, indicated that the expression of the reference genes is tissue specific with the most stable genes being: in the hypothalamus, Canx and Actb; in the pituitary, Sdha and Cyc1; in the ovary, 18s, Sdha and Ubc; and in the uterus, Ywhaz, Cyc1, Atp5b, 18s and Rpl13a. The optimal number of reference genes to be used was determined to be 2 in the first three tissues while in the uterus, the V-score generated by the GeNorm analysis was higher than 0.15 suggesting that 3 or more genes should be used for normalisation. Inclusion of tissues from pregnant mice changed the reference genes identified as being the most stable: Ubc and Sdha were the most stable genes in the hypothalamus, pituitary and the ovary. The addition of pregnant tissue had no effect on the stability of the genes in uterus (Ywhaz, Cyc1, Atp5b, 18s and Rpl13a). Identification of these stable reference genes will be of use to those interested in studying female fertility and researchers should be alert to the effects of pregnancy on reference gene stability. This study also signifies the importance of re-examining reference gene stability if the experimental conditions are changed, as shown with the introduction of pregnancy as a new factor in this research.

An Illustrative Analysis of Atypical Gas Production Profiles Obtained from In Vitro Digestibility Studies Using Fecal Inoculum.

Gas production profiles typically show a monotonically increasing monophasic pattern. However, atypical gas production profiles exist whereby at least two consecutive phases of gas production or additional extraneous features that distort the typical profile are present. Such profiles are more likely to occur with the use of a fecal inoculum and are much less well described. The presence of multiple phases or non-descript extraneous features makes it difficult to apply directly recommended modeling approaches such as standard response functions or classical growth functions. To overcome such difficulties, extensions of the Mitscherlich equation and a numerical modeling option also based on the Mitscherlich are explored. The numerical modeling option uses an estimate of relative rate obtained from the smoothed data profile and an estimate of maximum gas produced together with any lag time information drawn from the raw data to construct a simple Mitscherlich equation. In summary, this article illustrates the analysis of atypical gas production profiles obtained using a fecal inoculum and explores the methodology of numerical modeling to reconstruct equivalent typical growth-like trends.