Adherence to oral rehydration therapy among in-patient children aged 1-59 months with some or no dehydration.

OBJECTIVE: To determine adherence to oral rehydration solution (ORS) among in-patients aged 1-59 months suffering from gastroenteritis and having some dehydration (SD) or no dehydration (ND) in two rural hospitals in Kenya. METHODS: Children aged 1-59 months suffering from acute gastroenteritis with (SD) or (ND) were enrolled into the study, examined and medical records reviewed. On the second and third day of follow up, children were re-examined to ascertain hydration status and care-takers interviewed. RESULTS: Ninety-nine children were enrolled. Forty-five (75%) of the 60 children with SD received a correct prescription for ORS but only 12 (20%) received the correct amount. Among the 39 children with ND, 23 (59%) received a correct prescription for ORS, however only 16 (41%) received the correct amount. On the 3rd day, 9 (15%) of the 60 children with SD at baseline and 2 (5%) of the 39 with ND were classified as having SD. CONCLUSION: Four in five children with SD and 6 in 10 children with ND fail to receive the correct amounts of ORS.

Community understanding of pneumonia in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Effective management of pneumonia demands active participation by the caretaker to facilitate early seeking of appropriate health care and adequate compliance to home care messages. This would only be possible if the caretakers' perception of pneumonia is appropriate. This study aims to determine community's perception of childhood pneumonia in a suburb of Nairobi. OBJECTIVES: To determine community perception of childhood pneumonia. DESIGN: Cross sectional study utilizing qualitative ethnographic methodology. PARTICIPANTS: Six key informants for in-depth interview and eight groups for focus group discussions from the study community. RESULTS: Pneumonia was perceived to be the most serious childhood illness. There was a great deal of diversity of Kikuyu phrases for chest-in drawing. There was no term for rapid breathing. Chest in-drawing, fever, difficult in breathing, startling at night and convulsions were perceived as features of pneumonia. Chest in-drawing, fever and convulsions were indicative of severe disease. CONCLUSION: The caretakers perceived severe pneumonia as outlined in the IMCI guidelines. Non-severe pneumonia was not perceived for what it should be. Inappropriate knowledge on causes of pneumonia and signs of non severe pneumonia are likely to interfere with compliance with home care messages.

Feasibility of Infant Cord Blood HIV Testing for Anti-Retroviral Post-Exposure Prophylaxis

Background: Many maternity hospitals in developing country settings deliver women who are of unknown HIV status. The main objectives of this study were to evaluate the acceptability of post-partum infant cord blood HIV testing and the subsequent uptake of interventions to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Methodology: This was a cross-sectional study among infants delivered to women of unknown HIV status at the maternity ward of the Kenyatta National hospital; Kenya. At the time of delivery; five milliliters of cord blood was collected from consecutive singleton-birth infants born to women with unknown HIV status. After delivery; the women were counseled and consent was sought for HIV antibody testing of the cord blood. Anti-retroviral post-exposure prophylaxis was provided for HIV exposed infants and their mothers counseled on infant feeding. Results: Overall 220 (87) of the 253 mothers gave consent for HIV testing. This included 35 (90) of 40 mothers of babies with HIV positive cord blood and 184 (86.4) of 213 with HIV negative cord blood. Seventeen (48.6) of the 35 women who knew their status accepted to administer anti-retroviral prophylaxis to their infants; and 28 (80) chose to breast-feed their infants. Conclusions: Infant cord blood testing is highly acceptable among women who deliver with an unknown HIV status and provides an additional entry point for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV

Mothers' knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding acute respiratory infections in children in Baringo District, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Control of acute respiratory infections (ARI) is a major public health problem in developing countries. Implementation of case management protocols requires participation of the community to reduce morbidity and mortality from ARI. Health education programmes can only be effective when designed to take into account the prevailing knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) of the community towards ARI in their children. OBJECTIVE: To determine the KAP of mothers regarding ARI in their children aged less than five years. DESIGN: Community based cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Baringo District, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Mothers with children aged 0-5 years were recruited following stratified random sampling in three areas of Baringo District to represent low, medium and high potential areas based on agricultural productivity. INTERVENTION: A mixed structured and unstructured questionnaire was administered to each of the respondent mothers by the investigator; with the help of an interpreter where necessary. RESULTS: A total of 309 mothers were interviewed. Their mean age was 31.5 years (range 16-51) and 34% had no formal education. Only 18% of mothers described pneumonia satisfactorily. 60.2% knew that measles is preventable by immunisation. 87.1% of the mothers said they would seek health centre services for severe ARI. Formal education had a positive influence on the KAP of the mothers. CONCLUSION: The study reveals that the mothers had good knowledge of mild forms of ARI but not the severe forms. Their attitude to ARI was appropriate but subsequent practices were not. Low utilisation of health services for moderate ARI may result in continued high mortality because of delayed identification of seriously ill children.

Timing of breast milk HIV-1 transmission: a meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To define the frequency and timing of breast milk transmission of HIV-1. DESIGN: Meta-analysis of data abstracted from published literature. SUBJECTS: Participants in prospective cohort studies of MTCT of HIV-1. Cohorts were separated on the basis of breast feeding duration. INTERVENTIONS: None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: HIV-1 transmission rates. RESULTS: Two thousand three hundred and seventy five HIV-1 infected women and their infants, 499 of whom breast fed, the estimated risk of breast milk HIV-1 transmission was 16% (95% CI: 9, 22%). Among breastfeeding infants, forty seven per cent of HIV-1 infections were attributable to breast feeding. Breast milk transmission risk was 21% (95% CI: 10, 33%) in cohorts with mean/median duration of breast feeding > or = 3 months and 13% (95% CI: 4, 21%) in cohorts with median duration of breast feeding < 2 months. In a separate analysis of 702 infants with prolonged duration of breast feeding, the risk of late postnatal transmission (infection occurring later than three to six months of age) was four per cent (95% CI 2, 5%). CONCLUSIONS: This analysis suggests that breast milk transmission of HIV-1 is substantial and continues throughout the postnatal period. Early cessation of breast feeding at six months would avert some but not most infant HIV-1 infections due to breast feeding. While recently published studies showing some effectiveness of antiretrovirals early during the breast feeding period are encouraging, prevention of breast milk HIV-1 transmission needs to remain a high research priority.

Correlates of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) transmission: association with maternal plasma HIV-1 RNA load, genital HIV-1 DNA shedding, and breast infections.

To determine the effects of plasma, genital, and breast milk human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and breast infections on perinatal HIV-1 transmission, a nested case-control study was conducted within a randomized clinical trial of breast-feeding and formula feeding among HIV-1-seropositive mothers in Nairobi, Kenya. In analyses comparing 92 infected infants with 187 infants who were uninfected at 2 years, maternal viral RNA levels >43,000 copies/mL (cohort median) were associated with a 4-fold increase in risk of transmission (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.2-7.2). Maternal cervical HIV-1 DNA (odds ratio [OR], 2.4; 95% CI, 1.3-4.4), vaginal HIV-1 DNA (OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.1-4.7), and cervical or vaginal ulcers (OR, 2.7; 95% CI, 1.2-5.8) were significantly associated with infant infection, independent of plasma virus load. Breast-feeding (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.0-2.9) and mastitis (relative risk [RR], 3.9; 95% CI, 1.2-12.7) were associated with increased transmission overall, and mastitis (RR, 21.8; 95% CI, 2.3-211.0) and breast abscess (RR, 51.6; 95% CI, 4.7-571.0) were associated with late transmission (occurring >2 months postpartum). Use of methods that decrease infant exposure to HIV-1 in maternal genital secretions or breast milk may enhance currently recommended perinatal HIV-1 interventions.

Growth and development of abandoned babies in institutional care in Nairobi.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the pattern of growth and development of institutionalised infants and to compare the outcome with that of infants living with their biological mothers. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey. SETTING: Seven children's homes; Kenyatta National Hospital's New Born Unit and Well Baby Clinics in Nairobi, Kenya. PARTICIPANTS: Eighty-two abandoned babies who fulfilled the selection criteria were recruited and for each abandoned baby two mothered babies matched for age and sex were selected from the well baby clinics. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Anthropometric measures of weight, length, head circumference and left mid arm circumference (LUMAC) were taken and the mean values and Z scores determined to demonstrate growth pattern and nutritional status of the babies. The Revised Denver Development Screening Test (RDDST) was used to assess the development pattern of infants. RESULTS: Seventy per cent of infants were below six months old and 73% were abandoned within the first week of life. Abandoned babies were significantly thinner with the mean LUMAC of 10.8 cm versus 12.3 cm (p = 0.02) Institutionalised babies were significantly wasted (p = 0.00001) and stunted (p = 0.00001). Abandoned babies were significantly delayed in development (p < 0.0001). In all the four sectors tested for, institutionalised babies showed significant delay, p < 0.0001 in each sector. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that infants under institutional care have poorer growth and development compared to mothered infants.

PIP: This cross-sectional study examined the pattern of growth and development of infants in some of the baby institutions in Nairobi and compared the outcome with that of infants living with their biological mothers. The participating institutions included the Kenyatta National Hospital and 7 children's homes within the city. The study recruited 82 abandoned babies aged 1-18 months who had been abandoned for at least 2 weeks. Each abandoned baby was paired with 2 mothered babies matched for age and sex. Anthropometric measures of weight, length, head circumference, and left mid arm circumference (LUMAC) were taken. The mean values and Z scores were determined to assess growth pattern and nutritional status of the babies. The results showed that abandoned babies were significantly thinner, with a mean LUMAC of 10.8 cm vs. 12.3 cm. Moreover, abandoned babies were significantly wasted (p = 0.00001), stunted (p = 0.00001), and delayed in development (p 0.0001). These findings indicate that institutionalized infants have poorer growth and development compared to mothered infants.

Subtypes of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and disease stage among women in Nairobi, Kenya.

In sub-Saharan Africa, where the effects of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) have been most devastating, there are multiple subtypes of this virus. The distribution of different subtypes within African populations is generally not linked to particular risk behaviors. Thus, Africa is an ideal setting in which to examine the diversity and mixing of viruses from different subtypes on a population basis. In this setting, it is also possible to address whether infection with a particular subtype is associated with differences in disease stage. To address these questions, we analyzed the HIV-1 subtype, plasma viral loads, and CD4 lymphocyte levels in 320 women from Nairobi, Kenya. Subtype was determined by a combination of heteroduplex mobility assays and sequence analyses of envelope genes, using geographically diverse subtype reference sequences as well as envelope sequences of known subtype from Kenya. The distribution of subtypes in this population was as follows: subtype A, 225 (70.3%); subtype D, 65 (20.5%); subtype C, 22 (6.9%); and subtype G, 1 (0.3%). Intersubtype recombinant envelope genes were detected in 2.2% of the sequences analyzed. Given that the sequences analyzed represented only a small fraction of the proviral genome, this suggests that intersubtype recombinant viral genomes may be very common in Kenya and in other parts of Africa where there are multiple subtypes. The plasma viral RNA levels were highest in women infected with subtype C virus, and women infected with subtype C virus had significantly lower CD4 lymphocyte levels than women infected with the other subtypes. Together, these data suggest that women in Kenya who are infected with subtype C viruses are at more advanced stages of immunosuppression than women infected with subtype A or D. There are at least two models to explain the data from this cross-sectional study; one is that infection with subtype C is associated with a more rapid disease progression, and the second is that subtype C represents an older epidemic in Kenya. Discriminating between these possibilities in a longitudinal study will be important for increasing our understanding of the role of specific subtypes in the transmission and pathogenesis of HIV-1.

Genital shedding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA during pregnancy: association with immunosuppression, abnormal cervical or vaginal discharge, and severe vitamin A deficiency.

The presence of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in genital secretions may be a determinant of vertical HIV-1 transmission. Cervical and vaginal secretions from HIV-1-seropositive pregnant women were evaluated to determine prevalence and correlates of HIV-1-infected cells in the genital tract. HIV-1 DNA was detected by polymerase chain reaction in 32% of 212 cervical and 10% of 215 vaginal specimens. Presence of HIV-1 DNA in the cervix was associated with cervical mucopus and a significantly lower absolute CD4 cell count (354 vs. 469, P < .001). An absolute CD4 cell count <200 was associated with a 9.6-fold increased odds of cervical HIV-1 DNA detection compared with a count > or = 500 (95% confidence interval, 2.8-34.2). Detection of vaginal HIV- 1 DNA was associated with abnormal vaginal discharge, lower absolute CD4 cell count, and severe vitamin A deficiency. Presence of HIV-1-infected cells in genital secretions was associated with immunosuppression and abnormal cervical or vaginal discharge.

Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Africa.

PIP: With the prevalence of HIV among pregnant women higher than 35% in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa, the number of HIV-infected children will continue to grow. It is estimated that almost 70% of the approximately 500,000 children who became infected with HIV in 1995 were born in sub-Saharan Africa. An effective intervention to prevent the vertical transmission of HIV is therefore most urgently needed in Africa. Following the release of the results of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) 076 study, the routine use of zidovudine (AZT) among HIV-infected pregnant women in the US and Europe has resulted in a significant reduction in the rate of mother-to-child vertical HIV transmission. However, most women in Africa will not benefit from these advances in the immediate future due to inadequate prenatal health care, the unavailability of prenatal HIV testing, and the high cost and complexity of the recommended regimen. Researchers need to build upon the findings of developed countries to identify feasible, effective, and implementable interventions to reduce the vertical transmission of HIV as well as to prevent HIV infection among women and to protect the health of HIV-infected women in Africa. Rates and timing of vertical HIV transmission, risk factors associated with vertical HIV transmission, and prevention interventions are discussed.^ieng

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells in breast milk: association with immunosuppression and vitamin A deficiency.

Breast milk samples from human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-seropositive women were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction to determine the prevalence and determinants of HIV-1-infected cells in breast milk. Breast milk samples (212) were collected from 107 women, and 58% of the samples had detectable HIV-1 DNA. The proportion of HIV-1-infected cells in the milk samples ranged from 1 to 3255/10(4) cells. Breast milk samples with detectable HIV-1 DNA were more likely to be from women with absolute CD4 cell counts of < 400 (odds ratio, 3.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.5-7.0). Severe vitamin A deficiency (< 20 micrograms/dL) was associated with a 20-fold increased risk of having HIV-1 DNA in breast milk among women with < 400 CD4 cells/mm3 (95% CI, 2.1-188.5). Women with CD4 cell depletion, especially those with vitamin A deficiency, may be at increased risk of transmitting HIV-1 to their infants through breast milk.

Sexual abuse of children as seen at Kenyatta National Hospital.

A retrospective study of 21 sexually abused children admitted to the Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya, between January 1984 and December 1985 is presented. The peak incidence of sexual abuse was in the age group of 10-15 years (38.1%) followed by the 5-9 years age group (28.6%). Strangers and people familiar to the child were equally implicated as assailants. Fourteen out of the twenty one (66.7%) victims, presented with injuries ranging from perineal tears (19%), vaginal tears (19%), recto-vaginal fistulae (RVP) (4.8%) and vesico-vaginal-fistulae (VVF) and abdominal haematoma (4.8%). The victims presented to hospital within two days of the event usually accompanied by their mothers.

PIP: American studies report that 15% of reported child abuse case involve sexual abuse. Sexual abuse can be sexual molestation, sexual intercourse, and/or family related rape. Sexual abuse cases frequently come to the attention of hospital emergency care departments. Few reports appear in the medical literature on sexual abuse in Africa, although the media reports on its occurrence. This retrospective study provides information on the incidence and demographic characteristics of children admitted to Kenyatta National Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya, for sexual abuse. Records were obtained on rape or sexual abuse diagnosis cases between 1984 and 1988 for the following variables: age and sex of victim, time lapse before medical treatment, perpetrators relationship to victim, type of injury to victim, and person accompanying child to the hospital. The results reveal that 21 cases of children ranging from 4 months to 18 years were reported. In 19 cases, information on the assailant's character was unavailable. 66.7% of the victims were 5-15 years, and all were females. 15 (71.4%) were admitted within 2 days of the incident. 10 (47%) were sexually abused by strangers, and 11 (53%) by someone known such as a friend or relative. 19 incidents occurred after dark while on as parent-motivated errand. The place of victimization was usually close to the victim's home in cases where the assailant was known. The youngest children sustained the most severe injuries. Injuries included RVF and VVF, labial and perineal lacerations, hymenal tears, vaginal and perineal tears, abdominal injuries, and genital infection. Three children aged 4 6, and 7 showed evidence of previous coital experience. 5 children were without injuries. 19 patients stayed for 3 days or less; the other 2 with severe injuries stayed longer. 11 cases were brought by the mother. Case studies of the 4-month-old and the 9-year-old are presented. Discussion focuses on the nature of incestuous relationships and the character of the assailant. Prospective studies are needed, and prevention involves a massive public education effort.

Bacteriology of acute septic arthritis.

In a study of septic arthritis infants formed the bulk of patients though, notably, neonates were not encountered. Gram-negative bacterial of the Salmonella species, especially Salmonella typhimurium and Klebsiella species were the most important cause of septic arthritis in infants. Staphylococcus aureus was also isolated. The combination of blood cultures and joint aspirate cultures resulted in very high rate (72 per cent) of bacteria isolation. It is strongly recommended that every effort should be made to obtain two bacteriological specimens for culture to improve bacteriological diagnosis of the disease.

Battered baby syndrome at Kenyatta National Hospital, Nairobi.

Thirty children presenting with Battered Baby Syndrome over a five year period were studied retrospectively. The male:female ratio was 1:1.1. The majority (60%) were aged 0-11 months. 14 children (46%) were abandoned while six (20%) had multiple fractures, six (20%) multiple bruises and bites, and four (13.3%) had other forms of abuse. Twelve (40%) children were malnourished while eight of the babies (26.6%) were small for gestational age. Children were most frequently brought to hospital by the police or their mothers. The children were most frequently abused by their mothers either through abandonment or through physical battering. Details of mothers of the 14 abandoned children were unknown. Among the mothers of the other children, nine mothers were single, seven married and living with spouses and one stepmother. Two children (6.6%) died while the fate of two others was not known. Three children were sent home without intervention of the social worker, while twenty three children were discharged following intervention of the social worker; fourteen sent home, nine to a childrens' home and one through the juvenile court.