Facilitators and Barriers to Implementation of Simulation Based Education in Vascular Surgery in Europe.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored the status and availability of simulation based education (SBE) for learning vascular surgical procedures identified in the 2019 General Needs Assessment in vascular surgery in Europe (GNA-2019) and identified facilitators and barriers to SBE implementation in vascular surgery. METHODS: A three round iterative survey was distributed via the European Society for Vascular Surgery and the Union Européenne des Médecins Spécialistes. Members from leading committees and organisations within the European vascular surgical community were invited to participate as key opinion leaders (KOLs). Three online survey rounds explored demographics, SBE availability, and facilitators and barriers to SBE implementation. RESULTS: Overall, 147 KOLs (target population 338) accepted invitation to round 1, representing 30 European countries. The dropout rates for rounds 2 and 3 were 29% and 40%, respectively. Most respondents (88%) were senior, consultant level or higher. No mandatory SBE training was required in their department before training on patients, according to 84% of the KOLs. There was high consensus on the need for structured SBE (87%) and mandatory SBE (81%). SBE is available for the top three prioritised procedures in GNA-2019 (basic open skills, basic endovascular skills, and vascular imaging interpretation) in 24, 23, and 20 of the 30 represented European countries, respectively. The highest ranking facilitators were structured SBE programmes, availability of simulation equipment locally and regionally, good quality simulators, and having a dedicated person running the SBE. The highest ranked barriers were lack of structured SBE curriculum, equipment costs, lack of SBE culture, no or limited dedicated time for faculty to teach in SBE, and clinical work overload. CONCLUSION: Based largely on the opinions of KOLs in vascular surgery in Europe, this study revealed that SBE is needed in vascular surgery training and that systematic and structured programmes are required to ensure successful implementation.

The adverse impact of pre-operative anaemia on survival following major lower limb amputation.

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 5000 major lower-limb amputations (MLLA) for PAD occur per-annum in the UK with clinical outcomes being poor for this high-risk cohort of patients. Existing evidence suggests that anaemic surgical patients have an increased 30-day mortality, but this has not been explored in the context of MLLA. Recent prioritization processes suggested that MLLAs are a target area for research into outcome improvement. This cohort study evaluates the impact of anaemia on the outcome of MLLA to understand if optimization might improve outcomes. METHODS: All PAD patients undergoing MLLA during 2015-2018 at a tertiary vascular centre were reviewed. Patients were stratified into groups; non-anaemia (>12 g/dL), mild-anaemia (12-10 g/dL) and severe-anaemia (<10 g/dL) by pre-operative haemoglobin (Hb). Primary outcome was overall survival by Kaplan-Meier. Secondary outcomes included length of stay (LOS), post-operative blood-transfusion, surgical-site infection (SSI) and myocardial infarction (MI). Cox-proportional-hazard and receiver-operator characteristics (ROC) analyses were conducted. RESULTS: 345 patients were followed up over (mean) 23 months. 105 were non-anaemic, 111 mildly anaemic and 129 severely anaemic. Patients with severe-anaemia had a higher incidence of heart and renal failure (p = 0.003) than those with non- or mild-anaemia. Overall survival worsened significantly with increasing anaemia (p = 0.001). LOS was significantly longer in mild-anaemia which is 26 (16-43) days, (p = 0.006) and severe-anaemia of 28 days (17-40), (p < 0.001) compared to non-anaemia of 18 (10-30) days. Post-operative blood-transfusion (RBC) was required more frequently in 70.5% of severely anaemic patients (p < 0.001), compared to mildly anaemic (24.3%) and non-anaemic (7.6%) patients, with those receiving RBCs having a significantly worse survival. There was no difference in MI, SSI or wound dehiscence. Anaemia was significantly associated with mortality; (HR 1.7 (1.04-2.78), p = 0.03). A minimum-Hb of 10.4 g/L (by ROC) was identified as a cutoff Hb for an increased risk of mortality. CONCLUSION: Pre-operative anaemia is associated with worse outcome following MLLA, with increasing severity of anaemia associated with increasing mortality and RBC transfusion being potentially detrimental. More work is required to prospectively evaluate this relationship in this complex and multi-morbid cohort of patients.

Evaluating the feasibility and acceptability of an exercise and behaviour change intervention in socioeconomically deprived patients with peripheral arterial disease: The textpad study protocol.

This pilot randomised controlled trial aims to assess the feasibility and acceptability of a 12-week home-based telehealth exercise and behavioural intervention delivered in socioeconomically deprived patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD). The study will also determine the preliminary effectiveness of the intervention for improving clinical and health outcomes. Sixty patients with PAD who meet the inclusion criteria will be recruited from outpatient clinic at the Freeman Hospital, United Kingdom. The intervention group will undergo telehealth behaviour intervention performed 3 times per week over 3 months. This program will comprise a home-based exercise (twice a week) and an individual lifestyle program (once per week). The control group will receive general health recommendations and advice to perform unsupervised walking training. The primary outcome will be feasibility and acceptability outcomes. The secondary outcomes will be objective and subjective function capacity, quality of life, dietary quality, physical activity levels, sleep pattern, alcohol and tobacco use, mental wellbeing, and patients' activation. This pilot study will provide preliminary evidence of the feasibility, acceptability and effectiveness of home-based telehealth exercise and behavioural intervention delivered in socioeconomically deprived patients with PAD. In addition, the variance of the key health outcomes of this pilot study will be used to inform the sample size calculation for a future fully powered, multicentre randomized clinical trial.

Anaemia: A risk factor for death and adverse outcomes following surgery for acute lower limb ischaemia.

INTRODUCTION: Acute limb ischaemia (ALI) forms a significant part of the vascular surgery workload and carries with it high rates of morbidity and mortality. Anaemia is also common amongst vascular surgical patients and has been linked with poor outcomes in some subgroups. We aimed to assess the frequency of anaemia in patients with ALI and its impact on survival and complications following revascularisation to help direct future efforts to optimise outcomes in this patient group. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of prospectively collected departmental data on patients undergoing surgical intervention for ALI between 2014 and 2018 was performed. Anaemia was defined as a pre-operative haemoglobin (Hb) of <120 g/L for women and <130 g/L for men. The primary outcome was overall survival, assessed with the Kaplan-Meier estimator, with application of Cox proportional hazard modelling to adjust for confounding covariates. RESULTS: There were 158 patients who underwent treatment for ALI: 89 (56.3%) of these were non-anaemic with a mean Hb of 146 (SD = 18.4), and 69 (43.7%) were anaemic with a mean Hb of 106 (SD = 13.4). Anaemic patients had a significantly higher risk of death than their non-anaemic counterparts on univariate analysis (HR = 2.11, 95% CIs, 1.28-3.5, p = 0.0036). There was ongoing divergence in survival up to around 6 months between anaemic and non-anaemic groups. Under the Cox model, anaemia was similarly significant as a predictor of death (HR = 2.15, 95% CIs, 1.17-3.95, p = 0.013), accounting for recorded comorbidities, medication use and blood transfusion. CONCLUSIONS: Anaemia is a significant and independent risk factor for death following revascularisation for ALI and can be potentially be modified. Vascular surgical centres should ensure they have robust pathways in place to identify and consider treating anaemia. There is scope for further work to assess how to best optimise a patient's levels of circulating haemoglobin.

Interventions for great saphenous vein incompetence.

BACKGROUND: Great saphenous vein (GSV) incompetence, causing varicose veins and venous insufficiency, makes up the majority of lower-limb superficial venous diseases. Treatment options for GSV incompetence include surgery (also known as high ligation and stripping), laser and radiofrequency ablation, and ultrasound-guided foam sclerotherapy. Newer treatments include cyanoacrylate glue, mechanochemical ablation, and endovenous steam ablation. These techniques avoid the need for a general anaesthetic, and may result in fewer complications and improved quality of life (QoL). These treatments should be compared to inform decisions on treatment for varicosities in the GSV. This is an update of a Cochrane Review first published in 2011. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of endovenous laser ablation (EVLA), radiofrequency ablation (RFA), endovenous steam ablation (EVSA), ultrasound-guided foam sclerotherapy (UGFS), cyanoacrylate glue, mechanochemical ablation (MOCA) and high ligation and stripping (HL/S) for the treatment of varicosities of the great saphenous vein (GSV). SEARCH METHODS: The Cochrane Vascular Information Specialist searched the Cochrane Vascular Specialised Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and AMED databases, and World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov trials registers to 2 November 2020. We undertook reference checking to identify additional studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) treating participants for varicosities of the GSV using EVLA, RFA, EVSA, UGFS, cyanoacrylate glue, MOCA or HL/S. Key outcomes of interest are technical success, recurrence, complications and QoL. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected trials, applied Cochrane's risk of bias tool, and extracted data. We calculated odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and assessed the certainty of evidence using GRADE. MAIN RESULTS: We identified 11 new RCTs for this update. Therefore, we included 24 RCTs with 5135 participants. Duration of follow-up ranged from five weeks to eight years. Five comparisons included single trials. For comparisons with more than one trial, we could only pool data for 'technical success' and 'recurrence' due to heterogeneity in outcome definitions and time points reported. All trials had some risk of bias concerns. Here we report the clinically most relevant comparisons. EVLA versus RFA Technical success was comparable up to five years (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.41 to 2.38; 5 studies, 780 participants; moderate-certainty evidence); over five years, there was no evidence of a difference (OR 0.85, 95% CI 0.30 to 2.41; 1 study, 291 participants; low-certainty evidence). One study reported recurrence, showing no clear difference at three years (OR 1.53, 95% CI 0.78 to 2.99; 291 participants; low-certainty evidence), but a benefit for RFA may be seen at five years (OR 2.77, 95% CI 1.52 to 5.06; 291 participants; low-certainty evidence). EVLA versus UGFS Technical success may be better in EVLA participants up to five years (OR 6.13, 95% CI 0.98 to 38.27; 3 studies, 588 participants; low-certainty evidence), and over five years (OR 6.47, 95% CI 2.60 to 16.10; 3 studies, 534 participants; low-certainty evidence). There was no clear difference in recurrence up to three years and at five years (OR 0.68, 95% CI 0.20 to 2.36; 2 studies, 443 participants; and OR 1.08, 95% CI 0.40 to 2.87; 2 studies, 418 participants; very low-certainty evidence, respectively). EVLA versus HL/S Technical success may be better in EVLA participants up to five years (OR 2.31, 95% CI 1.27 to 4.23; 6 studies, 1051 participants; low-certainty evidence). No clear difference in technical success was seen at five years and beyond (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.57 to 1.50; 5 studies, 874 participants; low-certainty evidence). Recurrence was comparable within three years and at 5 years (OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.47 to 1.29; 7 studies, 1459 participants; and OR 1.09, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.76; 7 studies, 1267 participants; moderate-certainty evidence, respectively). RFA versus MOCA There was no clear difference in technical success (OR 1.76, 95% CI 0.06 to 54.15; 3 studies, 435 participants; low-certainty evidence), or recurrence (OR 1.00, 95% CI 0.21 to 4.81; 3 studies, 389 participants; low-certainty evidence). Long-term data are not available. RFA versus HL/S No clear difference in technical success was detected up to five years (OR 5.71, 95% CI 0.64 to 50.81; 2 studies, 318 participants; low-certainty evidence); over five years, there was no evidence of a difference (OR 0.88, 95% CI 0.29 to 2.69; 1 study, 289 participants; low-certainty evidence). No clear difference in recurrence was detected up to three years (OR 0.93, 95% CI 0.58 to 1.51; 4 studies, 546 participants; moderate-certainty evidence); but a possible long-term benefit for RFA was seen (OR 0.41, 95% CI 0.22 to 0.75; 1 study, 289 participants; low-certainty evidence). UGFS versus HL/S Meta-analysis showed a possible benefit for HL/S compared with UGFS in technical success up to five years (OR 0.32, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.94; 4 studies, 954 participants; low-certainty evidence), and over five years (OR 0.09, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.30; 3 studies, 525 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). No clear difference was detected in recurrence up to three years (OR 1.81, 95% CI 0.87 to 3.77; 3 studies, 822 participants; low-certainty evidence), and after five years (OR 1.24, 95% CI 0.57 to 2.71; 3 studies, 639 participants; low-certainty evidence). Complications were generally low for all interventions, but due to different definitions and time points, we were unable to draw conclusions (very-low certainty evidence). Similarly, most studies evaluated QoL but used different questionnaires at variable time points. Rates of QoL improvement were comparable between interventions at follow-up (moderate-certainty evidence). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Our conclusions are limited due to the relatively small number of studies for each comparison and differences in outcome definitions and time points reported. Technical success was comparable between most modalities. EVLA may offer improved technical success compared to UGFS or HL/S. HL/S may have improved technical success compared to UGFS. No evidence of a difference was detected in recurrence, except for a possible long-term benefit for RFA compared to EVLA or HL/S. Studies which provide more evidence on the breadth of treatments are needed. Future trials should seek to standardise clinical terminology of outcome measures and the time points at which they are measured.

Reliability of the Edinburgh Claudication Questionnaire for Identifying Symptomatic PAD in General Practice.

The Edinburgh Claudication Questionnaire (ECQ) was developed to help identify peripheral arterial disease (PAD) in the general population but has not been validated against diagnostic arterial imaging methods such as Duplex Vascular Ultrasound Scanning (DUS). In the present study, we assessed the accuracy of the ECQ for diagnosis using DUS. As part of a National Institute of Health Research funded project looking at novel diagnostic methods, 250 patients were studied from 15 general practices across North East England from May 2015 and November 2016. Practices identified those with a PAD diagnosis from their registers as well as age- and sex-matched controls. All the ECQs were recorded by a vascular specialist nurse. Duplex vascular ultrasound scanning was used as a reference standard for the diagnosis of occlusive PAD. The ECQ had a sensitivity of 52.5% (95% CI: 42.3%-62.5%), specificity of 87.1% (95% CI: 80.6%-92.0%), positive likelihood ratio of 4.06 (95% CI: 2.57-6.42), and negative likelihood ratio of 0.55 (95% CI: 0.44-0.68) compared with reference standard DUS. The ECQ has relatively poor overall diagnostic test accuracy in isolation. It may be helpful in ruling out PAD or as a supplementary test to improve diagnosis of symptomatic disease in General Practice.

Transvenous endovascular repair of symptomatic type II endoleak following endovascular repair of a ruptured common iliac aneurysm with arteriovenous fistula.

Arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is an uncommon presentation of ruptured aortoiliac aneurysm (rAIA). Symptomatic persistence of an AVF fed by a type II endoleak after endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR) for rAIA is rare, with little in the literature to guide practice. We present a novel transvenous approach to treatment of symptomatic type II endoleak after EVAR for rAIA with AVF. A transvenous approach avoids complex arterial access and the need for stenting in the venous system. This technique should be considered in patients with persistent AVF after EVAR with ongoing symptomatic type II endoleak.

Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism following superficial endovenous treatment: A UK and Republic of Ireland consensus study.

OBJECTIVES: Venous thromboembolism is a potentially fatal complication of superficial endovenous treatment. Proper risk assessment and thromboprophylaxis could mitigate this hazard; however, there are currently no evidence-based or consensus guidelines. This study surveyed UK and Republic of Ireland vascular consultants to determine areas of consensus. METHODS: A 32-item survey was sent to vascular consultants via the Vascular and Endovascular Research Network (phase 1). These results generated 10 consensus statements which were redistributed (phase 2). 'Good' and 'very good' consensus were defined as endorsement/rejection of statements by >67% and >85% of respondents, respectively. RESULTS: Forty-two consultants completed phase 1. This generated seven statements regarding risk factors mandating peri-procedural pharmacoprophylaxis and three statements regarding specific pharmacoprophylaxis regimes. Forty-seven consultants completed phase 2. Regarding venous thromboembolism risk factors mandating pharmacoprophylaxis, 'good' and 'very good' consensus was achieved for 5/7 and 2/7 statements, respectively. Regarding specific regimens, 'very good' consensus was achieved for 3/3 statements. CONCLUSIONS: The main findings from this study were that there was 'good' or 'very good' consensus that patients with any of the seven surveyed risk factors should be given pharmacoprophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin. High-risk patients should receive one to two weeks of pharmacoprophylaxis rather than a single dose.

Perceived Anxiety is Negligible in Medical Students Receiving Video Feedback During Simulated Core Practical Skills Teaching: A Randomised Trial Comparing Two Feedback Modalities.

Introduction The ability to undertake simple practical procedures is essential for graduating medical students and is typically assessed using simulated models. Feedback is a key component of the learning process in developing proficiency in these key skills. Video feedback (VF) has previously shown promise, however, negative effects of VF-related anxiety on performance have been previously reported. Our aim was to investigate for a difference in participant anxiety between supervised individualised video feedback (SIVF) and unsupervised generic video feedback (UGVF) when undertaking simulated basic practical procedures. Methods Undergraduate medical students participating in a clinical skills study to compare UGVF and SIVF completed a Likert scale questionnaire detailing perceived anxiety. During the study, students were recorded performing three basic surgical skills (simple interrupted suturing, intravenous cannulation, urinary catheterisation). Feedback was then provided by one of two methods: (1) SIVF - participant video footage reviewed together with a tutor providing targeted feedback, and (2) UGVF - participant video footage reviewed alone with concurrent access to a generic pre-recorded 'expert tips' video clip for comparison. Each participant received SIVF and UGVF at least once. Results The majority of participants did not find either SIVF (81.7%) or UGVF (78.8%) stressful. Students had a strong preference for SIVF (77.5%) and disagreed that similar 'face-to-face' feedback had impaired learning in the past (80.3%). Conclusion Medical student-perceived anxiety is negligible when video feedback is employed during simulated core practical skill training.

The Influence of Preoperative Anemia on Clinical Outcomes After Infrainguinal Bypass Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Anemia is associated with greater mortality and complications in cardiovascular surgery. Within chronic limb-threatening ischemia, the effect of anemia is becoming apparent. This study aimed to further understand the influence of anemia in patients undergoing surgical revascularization for lower limb ischemia. METHODS: A retrospective review of all patients undergoing infrainguinal surgical revascularization between 2016 and 2018 at a tertiary center was performed. Anemia was defined as an hemoglobin (Hb) level of less than 120 g/L. The primary outcome was overall survival by the Kaplan-Meier analysis. Secondary outcomes included length of hospital stay, blood transfusion requirements, wound infection, myocardial infarction, and limb-loss and all-cause mortality. The Cox proportional-hazard analysis and receiver operating characteristics (ROC) were performed. RESULTS: A total of 124 patients were followed-up for a mean of 23(8) months. Forty-five patients were anemic. There were comparable baseline demographics, comorbidity, and severity of symptoms. Overall survival was significantly worse (logrank P < 0.01) in the anemic group as was the duration of stay, 27 (23) days vs. 14 (16) days (P = 0.001). Patients with anemia received more blood transfusions, 19 (42%) compared with 13 (16.5%) (P = 0.001), and had more cardiac complications (11.1% vs. 3.8%) (P = 0.02). Surgical site infection rates were also higher (20% vs. 6.3%; P = 0.036). There was no difference in graft patency or subsequent ipsilateral major lower extremity amputation. Thirty-day mortality was comparable between the anemic versus the nonanaemic groups, 3 (6.7%) vs. 1 (1.3%) (P = 0.132). At 1 year, there was a higher mortality rate in the anemic group of 8 (18%) vs. 4 (5%) in the nonanaemic group (P = 0.037), which persisted to the long term. Anemia was independently associated with mortality; hazard ratio 4.0 (1.14-12.1). A 'cut-off' Hb level of 112 g/L was identified by ROC analysis. CONCLUSIONS: Preoperative anemia in infrainguinal bypass surgery has a significant association with mortality and morbidity. Preoperative anemia should prompt the vascular team to consider these patients as high risk and consider optimization of Hb.

Educational Impact of a Pulsatile Human Cadaver Circulation Model for Endovascular Training.

OBJECTIVES: The face and construct validity of a novel pulsatile human cadaver model (PHCM) was recently demonstrated for endovascular training. This study aimed to assess the model's educational impact. METHODS: Twenty-four endovascular novices were recruited and split into two equal training groups: PHCM and virtual reality simulator (VRS). Each candidate performed eight consecutive training attempts of endovascular renal artery catheterisation on their designated model, and a final crossover attempt on the alternate model. Performances were video recorded and scored using a validated scoring tool by two independent endovascular experts, blinded to the candidate's identity and attempt number. Each participant was given a task specific checklist score (TSC), global rating score (GRS), and overall procedure score (OPS). RESULTS: In the PHCM group average OPS improved gradually from 19.42 (TSC 8.58, GRS 10.83) to 39.50 (TSC 15.00, GRS 24.5) over eight attempts (p < .0005). In the VRS group OPS improved from 20.54 (TSC 10.29, GRS 10.25) to 36.04 (TSC 14.21, GRS 21.88) between the first and eighth attempts (p < .0005), with limited improvement after the second attempt. PHCM training significantly improved OPS on their VRS crossover attempt (p ≤ .0001), achieving a similar OPS to candidates who had completed VRS training (p = .398). VRS training significantly improved OPS on PHCM (p < 0.05); however, OPS was significantly worse than candidates who had completed PHCM training (p ≤ .001). CONCLUSIONS: PHCM training has a longer learning curve, with gradual improvement, reflecting the enhanced difficulty of a more realistic model. These results support the use of PHCM preceded by VRS training, prior to performing endovascular surgery on patients.

Evaluating the Construct Validity of a Pulsatile Fresh Frozen Human Cadaver Circulation Model for Endovascular Training.

BACKGROUND: We recently described a pulsatile fresh frozen human cadaver model (PHCM) for training endovascular practitioners. This present study aims to assess the construct validity of PHCM; its ability to differentiate between participants of varying expertise. METHODS: Twenty-three participants with varying endovascular experience (12 novice, 4 intermediate, and 7 expert) were recruited. Each attempted catheterization of the left renal artery on PHCM within 10 min under exam conditions. Performances were video recorded and scored using a validated scoring tool by 2 independent endovascular experts, blinded to performer status. Each participant was given a task-specific checklist score (TSC), global rating score (GRS), and overall procedure score (OPS). Finally, examiners were asked whether they would be happy to supervise the participant in theater, with each participant graded as "fail", "borderline," or "pass". RESULTS: All expert and intermediate participants completed the index procedure within the allotted 10 min; however, only one of the 12 novice participants achieved this (P < 0.0005). Endovascular novices had significantly lower TSC, GRS, and OPS than both intermediate participants and endovascular experts. There were no significant differences in TSC, GRS, or OPS between intermediate participants and endovascular experts. When participants were graded as "fail", "borderline," or "pass," there were significant differences between groups (P = 0.001). All of the intermediate and expert participants received a pass. Out of the 12 novice participants, 2 received a pass, 6 received a borderline, and 4 were failed. CONCLUSIONS: The PHCM demonstrates construct validity. Further work is required to determine its educational impact in endovascular training.

Asynchronous Unsupervised Video-Enhanced Feedback As Effective As Direct Expert Feedback in the Long-Term Retention of Practical Clinical Skills: Randomised Trial Comparing 2 Feedback Methods in a Cohort of Novice Medical Students.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the degree of practical clinical skills' retention over a 7-week period after receiving either video-enhanced direct expert feedback (DEF) or asynchronous unsupervised video-enhanced feedback (UVF). DESIGN: A prospective single-blinded randomized trial was conducted over a 7-week period with novice medical students. Following a generic introduction, PowerPoint presentation and live demonstration of intravenous cannulation was given by an expert, and candidates performed the same task in isolation while being recorded and were randomized to receive either DEF or UVF. Further, 20 students were randomized to receive UVF and 22 to receive DEF. Candidates returned to repeat the video-recorded task at week 1, 4, and 7, with no further feedback provision on these occasions. Performances were fully anonymized and independently marked by 2 expert assessors. SETTING: Newcastle University, Medical School, England, United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 42 novice medical students from the preclinical years were selected, with no prior experience of intravenous cannulation. RESULTS: No significant difference existed between demographics of either cohort. Good between-assessor score correlation was noted, with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.89. The DEF arm significantly improved from their prefeedback performance at Day 1 on repeating the skill a week later (p < 0.0001); this improved score was maintained throughout the duration of the study. The UVF arm showed a nonsignificant improvement; however, there was no significant difference in the scores between the UVF and the DEF groups at any point in the trial. CONCLUSIONS: Video-technology may play a significant role in the provision of feedback for practical skills. The ability for experts to provide remotely delivered but individualized feedback can be an efficient use of valuable resources, while students being able to self-assess their own performance alongside an expert video have the potential to provide students with an excellent opportunity to learn clinical skills without requiring intensive educator involvement.

A Pulsatile Fresh Frozen Human Cadaver Circulation Model for Endovascular Training: A Trial of Face Validity.

BACKGROUND: The authors have published their design of a pulsatile fresh frozen human cadaver circulation model (PHCM) for endovascular training the face validity of the PHCM for training endovascular practitioners was subsequently assessed. METHODS: Twelve endovascular clinicians performed the same 2 procedures (catheterization of the left renal artery and left subclavian artery) on PHCM and Simbionix angiomentor virtual reality simulator (SVR). They were randomized to begin on either the PHCM or SVR. A pretrial questionnaire determined participants' endovascular experience. After training, participants rated statements relating to their experience on a numerical scale from 1 to 5, with 1 representing the strongest agreement with the statement. RESULTS: When participants were asked to compare the realism of training modalities with live patients, PHCM scored significantly higher than SVR on statements regarding "realism of vascular access" (P = 0.002), "guide-wire manipulation" (P = 0.001), and "vessel catheterization" (P = 0.004). Candidates again favored PHCM as "a valuable learning exercise" (P = 0.016) and strongly favored PHCM as a "useful training model" compared to SVR (P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first published trial in world literature to assess the validity of a PHCM for training endovascular practitioners. The PHCM demonstrates good face validity when compared to both real patients and the SVR model and holds exciting potential.

Design of a Pulsatile Fresh Frozen Human Cadaver Circulation Model for Endovascular Training.

BACKGROUND: The objective of this project was to create a model capable of training endovascular skills using a freshly frozen human cadaver (HC). We present the results of our experience creating a cadaveric model for endovascular skills training. We undertook a unique cadaver laboratory-based research project. METHODS: We favor a minimally invasive surgical technique with inflow into the right common carotid artery and outflow through the left common femoral and right superficial femoral arteries. Endovascular access was through the right common femoral artery. RESULTS: Through this technique, the arch, thoracic, abdominal, and iliac vessels are all accessible. We perfuse the model through an open pulsatile flow circuit at varying rates to maximize angiographic image capture while minimizing cadaveric edema thus expanding the models longevity. CONCLUSIONS: A fresh frozen pulsatile human cadaver training model is a feasible and credible training model that has exciting potential for endovascular skills training.

Maintenance of Hemodialysis Vascular Access and Prevention of Access Dysfunction: A Review.

BACKGROUND: Current Renal Association guidelines recommend the creation of an arteriovenous fistula as the first choice for hemodialysis access, with artificial grafts kept in reserve. However, maintaining working access comes with significant difficulties, as well as an estimated annual cost to the National Health Service of greater than £84 million. Multiple methods of improving the successful creation of hemodialysis access, improving access maintenance and preventing access dysfunction therefore exist. The aim was to review these methods, including surgical, radiological, and pharmacological techniques. METHODS: The literature was reviewed up to March 2016 for reports of surgical, radiological, and pharmacology approaches to improve maturation, maintain function, and prevent dysfunction of arteriovenous fistulas and artificial access grafts. RESULTS: Access function has been related to fistula and graft configuration and anastomotic technique. Novel surgical approaches include the use of early-cannulation grafts and biological grafts. Preoperative radiological vessel mapping and access surveillance have both been studied, and once stenosis or thrombosis has occurred, endovascular management techniques for thrombolysis and thrombectomy, along with angioplasty and stenting, are common. Pharmacological trials include the use of antiplatelets, ACE inhibitors, statins, along with perivascular therapies, and other more novel drug targets. CONCLUSIONS: The evidence for the strategies that can be used to maintain access function is highly variable, with many small, observational, and retrospective studies. In the future, the more widespread use of early cannulation grafts, hybrid surgical and endovascular procedures, and the further pursuit of both biological grafts and biological perivascular therapies may yield improvements in vascular access function.

Three-dimensional (3D) printed endovascular simulation models: a feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a manufacturing process in which an object is created by specialist printers designed to print in additive layers to create a 3D object. Whilst there are initial promising medical applications of 3D printing, a lack of evidence to support its use remains a barrier for larger scale adoption into clinical practice. Endovascular virtual reality (VR) simulation plays an important role in the safe training of future endovascular practitioners, but existing VR models have disadvantages including cost and accessibility which could be addressed with 3D printing. METHODS: This study sought to evaluate the feasibility of 3D printing an anatomically accurate human aorta for the purposes of endovascular training. RESULTS: A 3D printed model was successfully designed and printed and used for endovascular simulation. The stages of development and practical applications are described. Feedback from 96 physicians who answered a series of questions using a 5 point Likert scale is presented. CONCLUSIONS: Initial data supports the value of 3D printed endovascular models although further educational validation is required.

Individualised Expert Feedback is Not Essential for Improving Basic Clinical Skills Performance in Novice Learners: A Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether unsupervised video feedback (UVF) is as effective as direct expert feedback (DEF) in improving clinical skills performance for medical students learning basic surgical skills-intravenous cannulation, catheterization, and suturing. BACKGROUND: Feedback is a vital component of the learning process, yet great variation persists in its quality, quantity, and methods of delivery. The use of video technology to assist in the provision of feedback has been adopted increasingly. METHODS: A prospective, blinded randomized trial comparing DEF, an expert reviewing students' performances with subsequent improvement suggestions, and UVF, students reviewing their own performance with an expert teaching video, was carried out. Medical students received an initial teaching lecture on intravenous cannulation, catheterization, and suturing and were then recorded performing the task. They subsequently received either DEF or UVF before reperforming the task. Students' recordings were additionally scored by 2 blinded experts using a validated proforma. RESULTS: A total of 71 medical students were recruited. Cannulation scores improved 4.3% with DEF and 9.5% with UVF (p = 0.044), catheterization scores improved 8.7% with DEF and 8.9% with UVF (p = 0.96), and suturing improved 15.6% with DEF and 13.2% with UVF (p = 0.54). Improvement from baseline scores was significant in all cases (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Video-assisted feedback allows a significant improvement in clinical skills for novices. No significant additional benefit was demonstrated from DEF, and a similar improvement can be obtained using a generic expert video and allowing students to review their own performance. This could have significant implications for the design and delivery of such training.

The role of simulation in the development of endovascular surgical skills.

Endovascular trainees in the National Health Service still largely rely on the apprentice-apprenticeship model from the late 19th century. As the scope for endovascular therapy increases, due to the rapid innovation, evolution and refinement of technology, so too do patients' therapeutic options. This climate has also opened the door for more novel training adjuncts, to address the gaps that exist in our current endovascular training curriculum. The aim of this paper is to present a succinct overview of endovascular simulation, synthesizing the trials and research behind this rapidly evolving training as well as highlighting areas where further research is required. The authors searched MEDLINE and EMBASE for relevant manuscripts on all aspects of endovascular simulation training. A comprehensive Google search was also undertaken to look for any relevant information on endovascular training courses available and any unpublished work that had been presented at relevant scientific meetings. Papers were categorized into the four models: synthetic, animal, virtual reality and human cadaver, and separate searches for evidence of skill transfer were also undertaken. Authors of novel research projects were contacted for further details of unpublished work and permission granted to report such findings in this manuscript.