Optimum slicing of radical prostatectomy specimens for correlation between histopathology and medical images.

PURPOSE: There is a need for methods which enable precise correlation of histologic sections with in vivo prostate images. Such methods would allow direct comparison between imaging features and functional or histopathological heterogeneity of tumors. Correlation would be particularly useful for validating the accuracy of imaging modalities, developing imaging techniques, assessing image-guided therapy, etc. An optimum prostate slicing method for accurate correlation between the histopathological and medical imaging planes in terms of section angle, thickness and level was sought. METHODS: Literature review (51 references from 1986-2009 were cited) was done on the various sectioning apparatus or techniques used to slice the prostate specimen for accurate correlation between histopathological data and medical imaging. Technology evaluation was performed with review and discussion of various methods used to section other organs and their possible applications for sectioning prostatectomy specimens. RESULTS: No consensus has been achieved on how the prostate should be dissected to achieve a good correlation. Various customized sectioning instruments and techniques working with different mechanism are used in different research institutes to improve the correlation. Some of the methods have convincingly shown significant potential for improving image-specimen correlation. However, the semisolid consistent property of prostate tissue and the lack of identifiable landmarks remain challenges to be overcome, especially for fresh prostate sectioning and microtomy without external fiducials. CONCLUSIONS: A standardized optimum protocol to dissect prostatectomy specimens is needed for the validation of medical imaging modalities by histologic correlation. These standards can enhance disease management by improving the comparability between different modalities.

Flexible needle-tissue interaction modeling with depth-varying mean parameter: preliminary study.

Flexible needle steering has aroused a lot of research interest in recent years. It has the potential to correct targeting errors, which may be caused by needle bending, tissue deformation, or error in insertion angle. In addition, control and planning based on a steering model can guide the needle to some areas that are currently not amenable to needles because of obstacles, such as bone or sensitive tissues. Thus, there is a clear motivation for needle steering. In this paper, a spring-beam-damper model is proposed to describe the dynamics during the needle-tissue contact procedure. Considering tissue inhomogeneity, depth-varying mean parameters are proposed to calculate the spring and damper effects. Local polynomial approximations in finite depth segments are adopted to estimate the unknown depth-varying mean parameters. Based on this approach, an online parameter estimator has been designed using the modified least-square method with a forgetting factor. Some preliminary experiments have been carried out to verify the steering model with the online parameter estimator. The details are given in this paper. Finally, conclusions and future studies are given at the end.

Methods for prostate stabilization during transperineal LDR brachytherapy.

In traditional prostate brachytherapy procedures for a low-dose-rate (LDR) radiation seed implant, stabilizing needles are first inserted to provide some rigidity and support to the prostate. Ideally this will provide better seed placement and an overall improved treatment. However, there is much speculation regarding the effectiveness of using regular brachytherapy needles as stabilizers. In this study, we explored the efficacy of two types of needle geometries (regular brachytherapy needle and hooked needle) and several clinically feasible configurations of the stabilization needles. To understand and assess the prostate movement during seed implantation, we collected in vivo data from patients during actual brachytherapy procedures. In vitro experimentation with tissue-equivalent phantoms allowed us to further understand the mechanics behind prostate stabilization. We observed superior stabilization with the hooked needles compared to the regular brachytherapy needles (more than 40% in bilateral parallel needle configuration). Prostate movement was also reduced significantly when regular brachytherapy needles were in an angulated configuration as compared to the parallel configuration (more than 60%). When the hooked needles were angulated for stabilization, further reduction in prostate displacement was observed. In general, for convenience of dosimetric planning and to avoid needle collision, all needles are desired to be in a parallel configuration. In this configuration, hooked needles provide improved stabilization of the prostate. On the other hand, both regular and hooked needles appear to be equally effective in reducing prostate movement when they are in angulated configurations, which will be useful in seed implantation using a robotic system. We have developed nonlinear spring-damper model for the prostate movement which can be used for adapting dosimetric planning during brachytherapy as well as for developing more realistic haptic devices and training simulators.

'Smart' needle for percutaneous surgery: influential factor investigation.

Precise needle insertion is important for a number of percutaneous interventions. Yet it is difficult to achieve in practice due to target movement and needle deflection. Preliminary design and simulation of 'Smart Needle' are presented in this paper for active needle steering. This smart needle is designed to use piezoelectric actuators to adjust the needle tip position. Some simulations have been carried out to investigate the influences of the factors, such as input voltage, the length and thickness of the piezoelectric actuators etc. on the produced needle tip deflection. This information is useful in designing an effective smart needle that will need less electrical input in order to achieve certain needle displacement.

Multi-channel robotic system for prostate brachytherapy.

In contemporary prostate brachytherapy, precise placement of needle and accurate deliver of radioactive seed at planned location is challenging. In this paper, we present a multi-channel robotic system designed for permanent seed implant in prostate. Unlike a single-channel robotic system or conventional manual technique, the designed multi-channel robotic system is capable of inserting a large number of needles concurrently. Numerous techniques perfected by a variety of experiments have been implemented in the system design. Thus, this system possesses potential several added advantages such as reduced target displacement, reduced edema, and less operating time as compared to single needle insertion technique. Several experimental results have been presented in this paper.

Hazard analysis of EUCLIDIAN: an image-guided robotic brachytherapy system.

Robotic assistance can help clinicians to improve the flexibility of needle insertion and accuracy of seed deposition. However, the robotic platform is a safety critical system for its automated operational mode. Thus, it is important to perform Hazard Identification & Safety Insurance Control (HISIC) for securing the safety of a medical robotic system. In this paper, we have performed HISIC for our robotic platform, called Endo-Uro Computer Lattice for Intratumoral Delivery, Implementation, and Ablation with Nanosensing (ECLIDIAN). The definition and requirements of the system are described by Unified Modeling Language (UML). Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) are executed for the principles of HISIC, such as hazard identification, safety insurance control, safety critical limit, monitoring and control. FMEA combined with UML can also be implemented to ensure reliability of the human operation. On the basis of safety control index and fuzzy mathematics, safety effective value is outlined to assess the validity of safety insurance control for robotic system. The above principles and methods are feasible and effective for hazard analysis during the development of the robotic system.

Vivo motion and force measurement of surgical needle intervention during prostate brachytherapy.

In this paper, we present needle insertion forces and motion trajectories measured during actual brachytherapy needle insertion while implanting radioactive seeds in the prostate glands of 20 different patients. The needle motion was captured using ultrasound images and a 6 degree-of-freedom electromagnetic-based position sensor. Needle velocity was computed from the position information and the corresponding time stamps. From in vivo data we found the maximum needle insertion forces to be about 15.6 and 8.9 N for 17 gauge (1.47 mm) and 18 gauge (1.27 mm) needles, respectively. Part of this difference in insertion forces is due to the needle size difference (17G and 18G) and the other part is due to the difference in tissue properties that are specific to the individual patient. Some transverse forces were observed, which are attributed to several factors such as tissue heterogeneity, organ movement, human factors in surgery, and the interaction between the template and the needle. However, theses insertion forces are significantly responsible for needle deviation from the desired trajectory and target movement. Therefore, a proper selection of needle and modulated velocity (translational and rotational) may reduce the tissue deformation and target movement by reducing insertion forces and thereby improve the seed delivery accuracy. The knowledge gleaned from this study promises to be useful for not only designing mechanical/robotic systems but also developing a predictive deformation model of the prostate and real-time adaptive controlling of the needle.

Hybrid dosimetry: feasibility of mixing angulated and parallel needles in planning prostate brachytherapy.

Pubic arch interference (PAI) often caused inadequate prostate coverage during transperineal brachytherapy using all parallel needles. In this paper, a hybrid implantation approach is presented in which additional angulated needles can be used to avoid PAI. This approach can be applied in prostate brachytherapy using a robotic assisted device. To examine the feasibility of this approach, volume data from three prostate seed implant patients were selected, which represent small, medium, and large prostates. As the blocking area was artificially increased simulating pubic arch overlap, the dosimetry outcomes and ratio of number of angulated needles to the total number of needles were analyzed. The hybrid dosimetry broke down when blocking is over 42%. As the percent of blocking increased, the ratio of the number of angulated needles to the total number of needles increased, while the dosimetry outcomes only had a slight trend of worsening. When close to the breakdown point, the dosimetry outcomes worsen drastically. Therefore, for moderate PAI the hybrid dosimetry is feasible.

Evaluation on similarity measures of a surface-to-image registration technique for ultrasound images.

Ultrasound is a universal guidance tool for many medical procedures, whereas it is of poor image quality and resolution. Merging high-contrast image information from other image modalities enhances the guidance capability of ultrasound. However, few registration methods work well for it. In this paper we present a surface-to-image registration technique for mono- or multimodal medical data concerning ultrasound. This approach is able to automatically register the object surface to its counterpart in image volume. Three similarity measurements are investigated in the rigid registration experiments of the pubic arch in transrectal ultrasound images. It shown that the selection of the similarity function is related to the ultrasound characteristics of the object to be registered.

Robot-assisted prostate brachytherapy.

In contemporary brachytherapy procedures, needle placement at the desired target is challenging due to a variety of reasons. A robot-assisted brachytherapy system can improve the needle placement and seed delivery resulting in enhanced patient care. In this paper we present a 16 DOF (degrees-of-freedom) robotic system (9DOF positioning module and 7 DOF surgery module) developed and fabricated for prostate brachytherapy. Techniques to reduce needle deflection and target movement have been incorporated after verifying with extensive experiments. Provisions for needle motion and force feedback have been included into the system for improving the robot control and seed delivery. Preliminary experimental results reveal that the prototype system is quite accurate (sub-millimeter) in placing brachytherapy needles.

Online parameter estimation for surgical needle steering model.

Estimation of the system parameters, given noisy input/output data, is a major field in control and signal processing. Many different estimation methods have been proposed in recent years. Among various methods, Extended Kalman Filtering (EKF) is very useful for estimating the parameters of a nonlinear and time-varying system. Moreover, it can remove the effects of noises to achieve significantly improved results. Our task here is to estimate the coefficients in a spring-beam-damper needle steering model. This kind of spring-damper model has been adopted by many researchers in studying the tissue deformation. One difficulty in using such model is to estimate the spring and damper coefficients. Here, we proposed an online parameter estimator using EKF to solve this problem. The detailed design is presented in this paper. Computer simulations and physical experiments have revealed that the simulator can estimate the parameters accurately with fast convergent speed and improve the model efficacy.

Bouquet brachytherapy: feasibility and optimization of conically spaced implants.

PURPOSE: To examine the dosimetric feasibility of a conical implantation approach to robotic-assisted prostate brachytherapy. METHODS AND MATERIALS: An in-house inverse planning software based on the genetic algorithm (GA) was used to optimize the needle angulations and the seed positions along needles that form one or two bouquets. Volume data from 20 prostate seed implant patients (six 125I and 14 103Pd) previously treated using the conventional rectilinear template approach were used. The dosimetry outcomes of the optimized treatment plan in the conical approach were compared with those from the original treatment plans based on the conventional rectilinear template approach. RESULTS: When seed spacing is restricted to nominal 1 cm center-to-center spacing, dosimetry results in the conical approach suffer from a higher urethra dose and higher dose heterogeneity compared with the original rectilinear template plans. When the seed loading patterns are optimized as part of inverse planning, the resulting dosimetry plans exhibit adequate dose coverage and uniformity through the target volume, as well as satisfactory sparing of the urethra and rectum. CONCLUSIONS: Conically spaced implantation for prostate brachytherapy with 125I and 103Pd seeds is feasible in terms of dosimetry outcomes. Techniques for optimized inverse planning for this approach have been developed.

Prostate boundary detection from ultrasonographic images.

OBJECTIVE: Prostate diseases are very common in adult and elderly men, and prostate boundary detection from ultrasonographic images plays a key role in prostate disease diagnosis and treatment. However, because of the poor quality of ultrasonographic images, prostate boundary detection still remains a challenging task. Currently, this task is performed manually, which is arduous and heavily user dependent. To improve the efficiency by automating the boundary detection process, numerous methods have been proposed. We present a review of these methods, aiming to find a good solution that could efficiently detect the prostate boundary on ultrasonographic images. METHODS: A full description of various methods is beyond the scope of this article; instead, we focus on providing an introduction to the different methods with a discussion of their advantages and disadvantages. Moreover, verification methods for estimating the accuracies of the algorithms reported in the literature are discussed as well. RESULTS: From the investigation, we summarize several key issues that might be confronted and project possible future research. CONCLUSIONS: Those model-based methods that minimize user involvement but allow for interactive guidance of experts will likely be most immediately successful.