Phellinus igniarius Polysaccharides Ameliorate Hyperglycemia by Modulating the Composition of the Gut Microbiota and Their Metabolites in Diabetic Mice.

Gut microbiota dysbiosis has been reported as a risk factor in the development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Polysaccharides from Phellinus igniarius (P. igniarius) possess various properties that help manage metabolic diseases; however, their underlying mechanism of action remains unclear. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of P. igniarius polysaccharides (SH-P) on improving hyperglycemia in mice with T2DM and clarified its association with the modulation of gut microbiota and their metabolites using 16S rDNA sequencing and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was used to verify the therapeutic effects of microbial remodeling. SH-P supplementation alleviated hyperglycemia symptoms in T2DM mice, ameliorated gut dysbiosis, and significantly increased the abundance of Lactobacillus in the gut. Pathway enrichment analysis indicated that SH-P treatment altered metabolic pathways associated with the occurrence and development of diabetes. Spearman's correlation analysis revealed that changes in the dominant bacterial genera were significantly correlated with metabolite levels closely associated with hyperglycemia. Additionally, FMT significantly improved insulin sensitivity and antioxidative capacity and reduced inflammation and tissue injuries, indicating improved glucose homeostasis. These results indicate that the ameliorative effects of SH-P on hyperglycemia are associated with the modulation of gut microbiota composition and its metabolites.

Cordyceps cicadae polysaccharides alleviate hyperglycemia by regulating gut microbiota and its mmetabolites in high-fat diet/streptozocin-induced diabetic mice.

Introduction: The polysaccharides found in Cordyceps cicadae (C. cicadae) have received increasing academic attention owing to their wide variety of therapeutic activities. Methods: This study evaluated the hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects of polysaccharides from C. cicadae (CH-P). In addition, 16s rDNA sequencing and untargeted metabolomics analysis by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) were used to estimate the changes and regulatory relationships between gut microbiota and its metabolites. The fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was used to verify the therapeutic effects of microbial remodeling. Results: The results showed that CH-P treatment displayed hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects and alleviated tissue damage induced by diabetes. The CH-P treatment significantly reduced the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and increased the abundance of Bacteroides, Odoribacter, Alloprevotella, Parabacteroides, Mucispirillum, and significantly decreased the abundance of Helicobacter and Lactobacillus compared to the diabetic group. The alterations in the metabolic pathways were mostly related to amino acid biosynthesis and metabolic pathways (particularly those involving tryptophan) according to the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. Correlation analysis showed that Bacteroides, Odoribacter, Alloprevotella, Parabacteroides, and Mucispirillum were positively correlated with indole and its derivatives, such as 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid. Indole intervention significantly improved hyperglycemic symptoms and insulin sensitivity, and increased the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in diabetic mice. FMT reduced blood glucose levels, improved glucose tolerance, and increased insulin sensitivity in diabetic mice. However, FMT did not significantly improve GLP-1 levels. Discussion: This indicates that C. cicadae polysaccharides alleviate hyperglycemia by regulating the production of metabolites other than indole and its derivatives by gut microbiota. This study provides an important reference for the development of novel natural products.

Islet MC4R Regulates PC1/3 to Improve Insulin Secretion in T2DM Mice via the cAMP and ß-arrestin-1 Pathways.

Melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) plays an important role in energy balance regulation and insulin secretion. It has been demonstrated that in the pancreas, it is expressed in islet α and ß cells, wherein it is significantly correlated with insulin and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion. However, the molecular mechanism by which it regulates islet function is still unclear. Therefore, in this study, our aim was to clarify the signaling and target genes involved in the regulation of insulin and GLP-1 secretion by islet MC4R. The results obtained showed that in islet cells, the expression of prohormone convertase 1/3 (PC1/3), which is correlated with islet GLP-1 and insulin secretion, increased significantly under the action of the MC4R agonist, NDP-α-MSH, but decreased under the action of the MC4R antagonist, AgRP. Additionally, we observed that to exert their regulatory functions in the islets, cAMP and ß-arrestin-1 acted as important signaling mediators of MC4R, and compared with control islets, the cAMP, PKA, and ß-arrestin-1 levels corresponding to NDP-α-MSH-treated islets were significantly elevated; however, in AgRP-treated islets, their levels decreased significantly. Islets treated with the PKA inhibitor, H89, and the ERK1/2 inhibitor, PD98059, also showed significant decreases in PC1/3 expression level, indicating that the cAMP and ß-arrestin-1 pathways are significantly correlated with PC1/3 expression. These findings suggest that islet MC4R possibly affects PC1/3 expression via the cAMP and ß-arrestin-1 pathways to regulate GLP-1 and insulin secretion. These results provide a new theoretical basis for targeting the molecular mechanism of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Primary study on the hypoglycemic mechanism of 5rolGLP-HV in STZ-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus mice.

5rolGLP-HV is a promising dual-function peptide for the treatment of diabetes and thrombosis simultaneously. For investigating the therapeutic mechanism of 5rolGLP-HV for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), STZ-induced diabetic mice were established and treated with 5rolGLP-HV. The results showed that daily water and food intake, blood glucose, serum and pancreatic insulin levels significantly decreased after 5rolGLP-HV treatment with various oral concentrations, and 16 mg/kg was the optimal dose for controlling diabetes. 5rolGLP-HV treatment decreased the MDA levels and the T-SOD activity in serum and pancreatic of diabetic mice (but not up to significant difference), and significantly increased the expression of signal pathways related genes of rolGLP-1, also the density of insulin expression and the numbers of apoptosis cells in islets of diabetic mice were significantly decreased in comparison to the negative diabetic mice. These effects above may be clarified the hypoglycemic mechanisms of 5rolGLP-HV, and 5rolGLP-HV may be as a potential drug for diabetes in future.

Primary study on the toxic mechanism of vanadyl trehalose in Kunming mice.

It has been shown that vanadyl trehalose could lower blood glucose but show mild toxicity to the stomach and intestine in diabetic Kunming mice. We analysed antioxidant levels, pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, apoptosis factors and intestinal microflora alteration to explore the mechanism of vanadyl trehalose toxicity in Kunming mice. The results revealed that oral administration of vanadyl trehalose at tested dose caused significant changes in oxidative stress factor (MDA levels elevated but SOD and T-AOC decreased), expression of inflammatory factor (IL-1ß, COX-2, TNF-α and iNOS increased), and apoptosis factor (Bcl-2/Bax decreased and caspase-3 increased), and intestinal microflora dysbiosis (the number of Enterobacteriaceae and Enterococcus increased and Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium decreased) relative to the control of Kunming mice. These results suggest that the toxic mechanisms of vanadyl trehalose on the stomach and intestine likely involve activation of the oxidative stress system, increased inflammatory response, promotion of apoptosis and the disruption of the normal intestinal microflora.

Acute toxicity, twenty-eight days repeated dose toxicity and genotoxicity of vanadyl trehalose in kunming mice.

A new trend has been developed using vanadium and organic ligands to form novel compounds in order to improve the beneficial actions and reduce the toxicity of vanadium compounds. In present study, vanadyl trehalose was explored the oral acute toxicity, 28 days repeated dose toxicity and genotoxicity in Kunming mice. The Median Lethal Dose (LD50) of vanadyl trehalose was revealed to be 1000 mg/kg body weight in fasted Kunming mice. Stomach and intestine were demonstrated to be the main target organs of vanadyl trehalose through 28 days repeated dose toxicity study. And vanadyl trehalose also showed particular genotoxicity through mouse bone marrow micronucleus and mouse sperm malformation assay. In brief, vanadyl trehalose presented certain, but finite toxicity, which may provide experimental basis for the clinical application.

Pharmacological Effects and Pharmacokinetic Properties of a Dual-Function Peptide 5rolGLP-HV.

In order to better understand the therapeutic mechanism of dual-function peptide 5rolGLP-HV in treatment of treat diabetes and its complication of thrombosis, the pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetic properties of 5rolGLP-HV were conducted in this study. 5rolGLP-HV was orally administered to diabetic mice, and the hypoglycemic mechanism was investigated. Thrombotic mice were applied to study the thrombus dissolving ability of 5rolGLP-HV. The concentration of rolGLP and rHV in rat plasma following single oral dose or intravenous injection of 5rolGLP-HV was measured. Treatment with 5rolGLP-HV decreased insulin resistance (2.96 ± 1.43 vs. 9.35 ± 1.51, p < 0.05) of diabetic mice. 5rolGLP-HV shortened the length of thrombus in thrombosis mice (2.92 ± 0.74 vs. 5.92 ± 1.16 cm, p < 0.01) and extended the thrombin time (15.35 ± 1.22 vs. 8.67 ± 0.89 s, p < 0.01) of normal mice. Meanwhile, 5rolGLP-HV restored the damage of pancreatic, liver, kidney, and adipose tissues induced in the diabetic mice. 5rolGLP-HV exhibited a fast absorption and slow elimination phase after digested into rolGLP-1 and rHV in vivo. These results suggested that 5rolGLP-HV had an ideal therapeutic potential in the prevention of ß cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes and delay of the thrombus.

Toxicology Assessment of a Dual-Function Peptide 5rolGLP-HV in Mice.

5rolGLP-HV had an ideal therapeutic potential in the prevention of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes and delay of the thrombosis. The objective of the study was to investigate the toxicology effects of 5rolGLP-HV and guarantee its safety. In acute toxicity test, the mice were orally receiving 5rolGLP-HV at a single dose of 300 mg/kg or 2000 mg/kg. For sub-chronic toxicity study, the mice received 5rolGLP-HV at doses of 800 mg/kg or 1600 mg/kg for 9 weeks. No significant adverse effects were evident in acute and sub-chronic toxicity tests, indicating that the LD50 value is greater than 2000 mg/kg. Although the liver and kidney exhibited a little abnormal in sub-chronic toxicity study, they could recovery to normal after withdrawal 5rolGLP-HV for 2 weeks. In micronucleus assay, the mice received 5rolGLP-HV at doses of 250, 500, or 1000 mg/kg for two consecutive days. The micronucleus numbers and the polychromatic erythrocytes to normochromatic erythrocytes (PCE/NCE) ratios among 5rolGLP-HV groups were within the normal range. Similarly, sperm aberration test demonstrated that 5rolGLP-HV had no teratogenic effect on the mice sperm. In conclusion, the combined results clearly demonstrated the safety of 5rolGLP-HV and support its use as a drug to treat diabetes and thrombosis.

Effect of Vanadyl Rosiglitazone, a New Insulin-Mimetic Vanadium Complexes, on Glucose Homeostasis of Diabetic Mice.

Diabetes has been cited as the most challenging health problem in the twenty-first century. Accordingly, it is urgent to develop a new type of efficient and low-toxic antidiabetic medication. Since vanadium compounds have insulin-mimetic and potential hypoglycemic activities for type 1 and type 2 diabetes, a new trend has been developed using vanadium and organic ligands to form a new compound in order to increase the intestinal absorption and reduce the toxicity of vanadium compound. In the current investigation, a new organic vanadium compounds, vanadyl rosiglitazone, was synthesized and determined by infrared spectra. Vanadyl rosiglitazone and three other organic vanadium compounds were administered to the diabetic mice through oral administration for 5 weeks. The results of mouse model test indicated that vanadyl rosiglitazone could regulate the blood glucose level and relieve the symptoms of polydipsia, polyphagia, polyuria, and weight loss without side effects and was more effective than the other three organic vanadium compounds including vanadyl trehalose, vanadyl metformin, and vanadyl quercetin. The study indicated that vanadyl rosiglitazone presents insulin-mimetic activities, and it will be a good potential candidate for the development of a new type of oral drug for type 2 diabetes.

Construction of a Fusion Peptide 5rolGLP-HV and Analysis of its Therapeutic Effect on Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Thrombosis in Mice.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), is currently used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus and hirudin (HV), plays an important role in controlling thrombosis and cardiovascular diseases. This investigation aimed to develop a fusion peptide 5rolGLP-HV which combined functions of rolGLP-1 and rHV to treat diabetes and thrombosis. In this study, we constructed a fusion gene including five copies of rolGLP-1 and one copy of rHV (5rolGLP-HV). The optimum expression conditions of 5rolGLP-HV in a soluble form were 0.8 mM IPTG induction when OD600 reached 0.6-0.8 and further growing at 25 °C for 9 h. Isolated rolGLP-1 and rHV were acquired by trypsin digestion in vitro, and the concentration of them was determined by HPLC in vivo. Oral administration of 5rolGLP-HV significantly decreased the levels of blood glucose, GHbA1C, TC, and TG in diabetic mice at the time of 3 weeks compared to the saline-treated group (p < 0.05), while the insulin level was reversed significantly (p < 0.05). 5rolGLP-HV treatment significantly shortened the length of thrombus in thrombosis mice compared to the saline-treated group (p < 0.01). These results indicated that 5rolGLP-HV had dual-function in treating diabetes and preventing thrombosis.

Anti-diabetic activity of recombinant irisin in STZ-induced insulin-deficient diabetic mice.

In order to investigate the hypoglycemic effects and potential mechanism of recombinant irisin on diabetes, STZ-induced diabetic mice were established and treated with irisin. The results showed that daily water and food intake, and blood glucose significantly decreased after various concentrations of recombinant irisin treatment by intraperitoneal injection, of which 1.0 mg/kg was the optimal dose for lowering blood glucose. However, the body weight exhibited no significant difference during the treatment within groups, although the 0.9% NaCl treated group showed a trend of decreased body weight and the irisin treated groups showed a tendency of increasing weight. The oral glucose tolerance was improved, and serum insulin and circulating irisin content were significantly elevated in diabetic mice after 1.0 mg/kg irisin-injection treatment, compared to diabetic mice treated with 0.9% NaCl. 1.0 mg/kg irisin-injection also significantly increased the expression of energy and metabolism-related genes. In addition, oral administration of irisin lowered the blood glucose in diabetic mice. Our data suggested that irisin could lower blood glucose in insulin-deficient diabetic mice, to some extent, through irisin-mediated induction of energy and metabolic genes expression. These observations laid a foundation for the development of irisin-based therapy.

Codon optimization and expression of irisin in Pichia pastoris GS115.

Irisin is a novel hormone which is related to many metabolic diseases. In order to illuminate the function and therapeutic effect of irisin, gaining active irisin is necessary. In this work, a codon-optimized irisin gene was designed according to Pichia pastoris synonymous codon usage bias and cloned into the pPIC9K expression vector. Sequencing result indicating that the sequence of irisin was consistent with the modified irisin and the irisin was in frame with α-factor secretion signal ATG. The plasmid pPIC9K-irisin was transformed into GS115 P. pastoris cells through electroporation. The positive transformants were screened on MD medium and analyzed by PCR. Five recombinant GS115/pPIC9K-irisin strains were obtained, but only one strain expressed irisin successfully. SDS-PAGE and Western blot were used to assess the expression level and purity of irisin. The irisin was also simply purified and the effect of pH value, methanol concentration and induction time on the production of irisin was investigated. The results showed that the best conditions of irisin expression were as follows: pH 6.0, 2.0% methanol and induction for 96 h. This work laid the basis for further investigation into the therapeutic and pharmacological effects of irisin, as well as development of irisin-based therapy.

Liver histone H3 methylation and acetylation may associate with type 2 diabetes development.

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a complicated systemic disease, and the exact pathogenetic molecular mechanism is unclear. Distinct histone modifications regulate gene expression in certain diseases, but little is known about histone epigenetics in diabetes. In the current study, C57BL/6 J mice were used to build T2D model, then treated with exendin-4 (10 µg/kg). Histone H3K9 and H3K23 acetylation, H3K4 monomethylation and H3K9 dimethylation were explored by Western blotting of liver histone extracts. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to examine expression levels of diabetes-related genes, while chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) was applied to analyze H3 and H3K9 acetylation, H3K4 monomethylation, and H3K9 dimethylation in the promoter of facilitated glucose transporter member 2 (Glut2) gene. The results showed that liver's total H3K4 monomethylation and H3K9 dimethylation was increased in diabetic mice, which was abrogated with the treatment of exendin-4. In contrast, H3K9 and H3K23 acetylation were reduced in diabetic mice, while exendin-4 only alleviated the reduction of H3K9 acetylation. Our data indicated that the progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is associated with global liver histone H3K9 and H3K23 acetylation, H3K4 monomethylation, and H3K9 dimethylation. Exploiting exact histone modify enzyme inhibitors, which may represent a novel strategy to prevent T2D.

Liver histone H3 methylation and acetylation may associate with type 2 diabetes development

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a complicated systemic disease, and the exact pathogenetic molecular mechanism is unclear. Distinct histone modifications regulate gene expression in certain diseases, but little is known about histone epigenetics in diabetes. In the current study, C57BL/6 J mice were used to build T2D model, then treated with exendin-4 (10 μg/kg). Histone H3K9 and H3K23 acetylation, H3K4 monomethylation and H3K9 dimethylation were explored by Western blotting of liver histone extracts. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to examine expression levels of diabetes-related genes, while chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) was applied to analyze H3 and H3K9 acetylation, H3K4 monomethylation, and H3K9 dimethylation in the promoter of facilitated glucose transporter member 2 (Glut2) gene. The results showed that liver’s total H3K4 monomethylation and H3K9 dimethylation was increased in diabetic mice, which was abrogated with the treatment of exendin-4. In contrast, H3K9 and H3K23 acetylation were reduced in diabetic mice, while exendin-4 only alleviated the reduction of H3K9 acetylation. Our data indicated that the progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is associated with global liver histone H3K9 and H3K23 acetylation, H3K4 monomethylation, and H3K9 dimethylation. Exploiting exact histone modify enzyme inhibitors, which may represent a novel strategy to prevent T2D