Engaging learners with games-Insights from functional near-infrared spectroscopy.

The use of game elements in learning tasks is thought to facilitate emotional and behavioral responses as well as learner engagement. So far, however, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of game-based learning. In the current study, we added game elements to a number line estimation task assessing fraction understanding and compared brain activation patterns to a non-game-based task version. Forty-one participants performed both task versions in counterbalanced order while frontal brain activation patterns were assessed using near-infrared spectroscopy (within-subject, cross-sectional study design). Additionally, heart rate, subjective user experience, and task performance were recorded. Task performance, mood, flow experience, as well as heart rate did not differ between task versions. However, the game-based task-version was rated as more attractive, stimulating and novel compared to the non-game-based task version. Additionally, completing the game-based task version was associated with stronger activation in frontal brain areas generally involved in emotional and reward processing as well as attentional processes. These results provide new neurofunctional evidence substantiating that game elements in learning tasks seem to facilitate learning through emotional and cognitive engagement.

Different aspects of fraction understanding are associated selectively with performance on a fraction learning game.

Fraction understanding seems a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it is an important predictor of later mathematical achievement. On the other hand, it is also one of the topics students struggle most in secondary math education. To complement traditional instruction, digital learning games were developed and found to successfully foster fraction understanding. However, so far, it is not known to what degree different aspects of fraction understanding (e.g., part-whole relations, fraction magnitude, fraction arithmetic) may be conveyed by such games. The current study evaluated selective associations of in-game performance of the fraction learning game Semideus with specific aspects of fraction understanding assessed using a comprehensive paper-pencil test. In Semideus, seventh graders (Mage=12.3years) from academic track secondary schools in Germany estimated the location of fractions on a number line and compared fractions according to their magnitude. Results replicated previous findings showing that in-game performance was significantly associated with mathematics achievement (i.e., math grades) and basic, whole number arithmetic skills. Moreover, we observed significant associations for aspects of fraction understanding closely matching mechanics of the learning game such as fraction number line estimation, fraction magnitude comparison and fraction ordering. These associations were observed for accuracy on the game's fraction learning tasks (e.g., estimation accuracy on the number line) but also generalized to game-based metrics such as virtual incentives (i.e., stars awarded in the game). This implies that the actual game mechanic may help to convey aspects of fraction understanding, substantiating ideas of intrinsic integration in game design.

Gamification of an n-back working memory task - Is it worth the effort? An EEG and eye-tracking study.

Gamification of cognitive tasks might positively affect emotional-motivational factors (emotional design perspective) or negatively affect cognitive factors like working memory load (minimalistic design perspective). The current study examined the effects of gamification in a spatial n-back working memory task on task performance, task load (i.e., working memory load and effort), and subjective task experience. Task load was assessed by the physiological process measures pupil dilation and EEG theta (4-6 Hz) and alpha (8-13 Hz) frequency band power. Gamification was achieved by elements of emotional design (i.e., the visual screen design using, e.g., color, cartoon figures as n-back stimuli, and a narrative embedding of the task). While EEG and eye-tracking were recorded, participants conducted gamified and non-gamified 1-back and 2-back load levels. The gamification resulted in positive effects on subjective task experience and affect. Despite these effects, gamification did not affect task performance and task load. However, exploratory analyses revealed increased EEG theta power at right-parietal electrodes for gamified task versions compared to non-gamified ones. Potentially, this effect might indicate participants' increased effort or concentration in the gamified n-back task. In line with an emotional design perspective, gamification positively altered subjective task experience and affect without hampering task performance and therefore justify the extra effort of implementing game elements.

Closing the loop - The human role in artificial intelligence for education.

Recent advancements in artificial intelligence make its use in education more likely. In fact, existing learning systems already utilize it for supporting students' learning or teachers' judgments. In this perspective article, we want to elaborate on the role of humans in making decisions in the design and implementation process of artificial intelligence in education. Therefore, we propose that an artificial intelligence-supported system in education can be considered a closed-loop system, which includes the steps of (i) data recording, (ii) pattern detection, and (iii) adaptivity. Besides the design process, we also consider the crucial role of the users in terms of decisions in educational contexts: While some implementations of artificial intelligence might make decisions on their own, we specifically highlight the high potential of striving for hybrid solutions in which different users, namely learners or teachers, are provided with information from artificial intelligence transparently for their own decisions. In light of the non-perfect accuracy of decisions of both artificial intelligence-based systems and users, we argue for balancing the process of human- and AI-driven decisions and mutual monitoring of these decisions. Accordingly, the decision-making process can be improved by taking both sides into account. Further, we emphasize the importance of contextualizing decisions. Potential erroneous decisions by either machines or humans can have very different consequences. In conclusion, humans have a crucial role at many stages in the process of designing and using artificial intelligence for education.

Triathletes are experts in self-regulating physical activity - But what about self-regulating neural activity?

Regular exercise improves cognitive control abilities and successful self-regulation of physical activity. However, it is not clear whether exercising also improves the ability to self-regulate one's own brain activity. We investigated this in 26 triathletes and 25 control participants who did not exercise regularly. Within each group half of the participants performed one session of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR, 12-15 Hz) upregulation neurofeedback training, the other half received a sham neurofeedback training. The neurofeedback training session took about 45 min. In a separate session, participants underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to investigate possible differences in brain structure between triathletes and controls. Triathletes and controls were able to voluntarily upregulate their SMR activity during neurofeedback when receiving real feedback. Triathletes showed a stronger increase in SMR activity in the second half of the training compared to controls, suggesting that triathletes are able to self-regulate their own brain activity over a longer period of time. Further, triathletes and controls showed differences in brain structure as reflected by larger gray and white matter volumes in the inferior frontal gyrus and insula compared to controls. These brain areas are generally involved in cognitive control mechanisms. Our results provide new evidence regarding self-regulation abilities of people who exercise regularly and might impact the practical application of neurofeedback.

Self-efficacy matters: Influence of students' perceived self-efficacy on statistics anxiety.

Statistical knowledge is a key competency for psychologists in order to correctly interpret assessment outcomes. Importantly, when learning statistics (and its mathematical foundations), self-efficacy (defined as an individual's belief to successfully accomplish specific performance attainments) is a central predictor of students' motivation to learn, learning engagement, and actual achievement. Therefore, it is crucial to gain a better understanding of students' self-efficacy for statistics and its interrelations with statistics anxiety and students' belief in the relevance of statistics. Here, we present results showing development and validation of a self-assessment questionnaire for examining self-efficacy for statistics in psychology students (Self-Efficacy for Learning Statistics for Psychologists, SES-Psy). Upon using different methodological approaches, we demonstrate that the SES-Psy questionnaire has (1) sound psychometric properties, and within our sample of university students, (2) a robust latent structure disclosing three clearly distinctive profiles that are characterized by a complex and nonlinear interplay between perceived self-efficacy (for basic and advanced statistics), statistics anxiety, and students' belief in the relevance of statistics. Implications for educational settings and future research are discussed.

Does Playing Apart Really Bring Us Together? Investigating the Link Between Perceived Loneliness and the Use of Video Games During a Period of Social Distancing.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, several countries implemented social distancing measures to contain virus transmission. However, these vital safety measures have the potential to impair mental health or wellbeing, for instance, from increased perceived loneliness. Playing social video games may offer a way to continue to socialize while adhering to social distancing measures. To examine this issue further, the present online survey investigated social gaming during the pandemic and its association to perceived loneliness within a German-speaking sample. Results indicated a small positive correlation between general gaming frequency and perceived loneliness. Detailed analysis revealed a negative association between perceived loneliness and increased social forms of video gaming. Specifically, gamers with a higher social motive for gaming perceived less loneliness, but gamers with a dominant escape motive demonstrated a positive link to perceived loneliness. The use of social gaming in times of social distancing seems to play a small but significant factor in perceived loneliness compared to other demographical data. The findings are discussed with respect to methodological limitations, effect sizes, and sample characteristics. The results enrich the current knowledge on video gaming and its link to social wellbeing and provide a more nuanced picture than simplistic investigations of screen time.

Measuring Cognitive Load Using In-Game Metrics of a Serious Simulation Game.

Serious games have become an important tool to train individuals in a range of different skills. Importantly, serious games or gamified scenarios allow for simulating realistic time-critical situations to train and also assess individual performance. In this context, determining the user's cognitive load during (game-based) training seems crucial for predicting performance and potential adaptation of the training environment to improve training effectiveness. Therefore, it is important to identify in-game metrics sensitive to users' cognitive load. According to Barrouillets' time-based resource-sharing model, particularly relevant for measuring cognitive load in time-critical situations, cognitive load does not depend solely on the complexity of actions but also on temporal aspects of a given task. In this study, we applied this idea to the context of a serious game by proposing in-game metrics for workload prediction that reflect a relation between the time during which participants' attention is captured and the total time available for the task at hand. We used an emergency simulation serious game requiring management of time-critical situations. Forty-seven participants completed the emergency simulation and rated their workload using the NASA-TLX questionnaire. Results indicated that the proposed in-game metrics yielded significant associations both with subjective workload measures as well as with gaming performance. Moreover, we observed that a prediction model based solely on data from the first minutes of the gameplay predicted overall gaming performance with a classification accuracy significantly above chance level and not significantly different from a model based on subjective workload ratings. These results imply that in-game metrics may qualify for a real-time adaptation of a game-based learning environment.

Preserved Inhibitory Control Deficits of Overweight Participants in a Gamified Stop-Signal Task: Experimental Study of Validity.

BACKGROUND: Gamification in mental health could increase training adherence, motivation, and transfer effects, but the external validity of gamified tasks is unclear. This study documents that gamified task variants can show preserved associations between markers of behavioral deficits and health-related variables. We draw on the inhibitory control deficit in overweight populations to investigate effects of gamification on performance measures in a web-based experimental task. OBJECTIVE: This study tested whether associations between inhibitory control and overweight were preserved in a gamified stop-signal task (SST). METHODS: Two versions of an adaptive SST were developed and tested in an online experiment. Participants (n=111) were randomized to 1 of the 2 task variants and completed a series of questionnaires along with either the gamified SST or a conventional SST. To maximize its possible effects on participants' inhibitory control, the gamified SST included multiple game elements in addition to the task itself and the stimuli. Both variants drew on the identical core mechanics, but the gamified variant included an additional narrative, graphical theme, scoring system with visual and emotional feedback, and the presence of a companion character. In both tasks, food and neutral low-poly stimuli were classified based on their color tone (go trials), but responses were withheld in 25% of the trials (stop trials). Mean go reaction times and stop-signal reaction times (SSRT) were analyzed as measures of performance and inhibitory control. RESULTS: Participants in the gamified SST had longer reaction times (803 [SD 179] ms vs 607 [SD 90] ms) and worse inhibitory control (SSRT 383 [SD 109] ms vs 297 [SD 45] ms). The association of BMI with inhibitory control was relatively small (r=.155, 95% CI .013-.290). Overweight participants had longer reaction times (752 [SD 217] ms vs 672 [SD 137] ms) and SSRTs (363 [SD 116] ms vs 326 [SD 77] ms). Gamification did not interact with the effect of overweight on mean performance or inhibitory control. There were no effects of gamification on mood and user experience, despite a negative effect on perceived efficiency. CONCLUSIONS: The detrimental effects of heightened BMI on inhibitory control were preserved in a gamified version of the SST. Overall, the effects of overweight were smaller than in previously published web-based and laboratory studies. Gamification elements can impact behavioral performance, but gamified tasks can still assess inhibitory control deficits. Although our results are promising, according validations may differ for other types of behavior, gamification, and health variables.

Neurofunctional plasticity in fraction learning: An fMRI training study.

BACKGROUND: Fractions are known to be difficult for children and adults. Behavioral studies suggest that magnitude processing of fractions can be improved via number line estimation (NLE) trainings, but little is known about the neural correlates of fraction learning. METHOD: To examine the neuro-cognitive foundations of fraction learning, behavioral performance and neural correlates were measured before and after a five-day NLE training. RESULTS: In all evaluation tasks behavioral performance increased after training. We observed a fronto-parietal network associated with number magnitude processing to be recruited in all tasks as indicated by a numerical distance effect. For symbolic fractions, the distance effect on intraparietal activation was only observed after training. CONCLUSION: The absence of a distance effect of symbolic fractions before the training could indicate an initially less automatic access to their overall magnitude. NLE training facilitates processing of overall fraction magnitude as indicated by the distance effect in neural activation.

Game-based learning environments affect frontal brain activity.

Inclusion of game elements in learning environments to increase motivation and learning outcome is becoming increasingly popular. However, underlying mechanisms of game-based learning have not been studied sufficiently yet. In the present study, we investigated effects of game-based learning environments on a neurofunctional level. In particular, 59 healthy adults completed a game-based version (including game elements such as a narrative and virtual incentives) as well as a non-game-based version of a number line estimation task, to improve fractional knowledge, while their brain activity was monitored using near-infrared spectroscopy. Behavioral performance was comparable across the two versions, although there was a tendency that less errors were made in the game-based version. However, subjective user experience differed significantly between versions. Participants rated the game-based version as more attractive, novel, and stimulating but less efficient than the non-game-based version. Additionally, positive affect was reported to be higher while engaging in the game-based as compared to the non-game-based task version. Corroborating these user reports, we identified increased brain activation in areas associated with emotion and reward processing while playing the game-based version, which might be driven by rewarding elements of the game-based version. Moreover, frontal areas associated with attention were also more activated in the game-based version of the task. Hence, we observed converging evidence on a user experience and neurofunctional level indicating that the game-based version was more rewarding as well as emotionally and attentionally engaging. These results underscore the potential of game-based learning environments to promote more efficient learning by means of attention and reward up-tuning.

Cognitive Mechanisms Underlying Directional and Non-directional Spatial-Numerical Associations across the Lifespan.

There is accumulating evidence suggesting an association of numbers with physical space. However, the origin of such spatial-numerical associations (SNAs) is still debated. In the present study we investigated the development of two SNAs in a cross-sectional study involving children, young and middle-aged adults as well as the elderly: (1) the SNARC (spatial-numerical association of response codes) effect, reflecting a directional SNA; and (2) the numerical bisection bias in a line bisection task with numerical flankers. Results revealed a consistent SNARC effect in all age groups that continuously increased with age. In contrast, a numerical bisection bias was only observed for children and elderly participants, implying an U-shaped distribution of this bias across age groups. Additionally, individual SNARC effects and numerical bisection biases did not correlate significantly. We argue that the SNARC effect seems to be influenced by longer-lasting experiences of cultural constraints such as reading and writing direction and may thus reflect embodied representations. Contrarily, the numerical bisection bias may originate from insufficient inhibition of the semantic influence of irrelevant numerical flankers, which should be more pronounced in children and elderly people due to development and decline of cognitive control, respectively. As there is an ongoing debate on the origins of SNAs in general and the SNARC effect in particular, the present results are discussed in light of these differing accounts in an integrative approach. However, taken together, the present pattern of results suggests that different cognitive mechanisms underlie the SNARC effect and the numerical bisection bias.

Ability to Gain Control Over One's Own Brain Activity and its Relation to Spiritual Practice: A Multimodal Imaging Study.

Spiritual practice, such as prayer or meditation, is associated with focusing attention on internal states and self-awareness processes. As these cognitive control mechanisms presumably are also important for neurofeedback (NF), we investigated whether people who pray frequently (N = 20) show a higher ability of self-control over their own brain activity compared to a control group of individuals who rarely pray (N = 20). All participants underwent structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and one session of sensorimotor rhythm (SMR, 12-15 Hz) based NF training. Individuals who reported a high frequency of prayer showed improved NF performance compared to individuals who reported a low frequency of prayer. The individual ability to control one's own brain activity was related to volumetric aspects of the brain. In the low frequency of prayer group, gray matter volumes in the right insula and inferior frontal gyrus were positively associated with NF performance, supporting prior findings that more general self-control networks are involved in successful NF learning. In contrast, participants who prayed regularly showed a negative association between gray matter volume in the left medial orbitofrontal cortex (Brodmann's area (BA) 10) and NF performance. Due to their regular spiritual practice, they might have been more skillful in gating incoming information provided by the NF system and avoiding task-irrelevant thoughts.

Neuronal Correlates of Cognitive Control during Gaming Revealed by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

In everyday life we quickly build and maintain associations between stimuli and behavioral responses. This is governed by rules of varying complexity and past studies have identified an underlying fronto-parietal network involved in cognitive control processes. However, there is only limited knowledge about the neuronal activations during more natural settings like game playing. We thus assessed whether near-infrared spectroscopy recordings can reflect different demands on cognitive control during a simple game playing task. Sixteen healthy participants had to catch falling objects by pressing computer keys. These objects either fell randomly (RANDOM task), according to a known stimulus-response mapping applied by players (APPLY task) or according to a stimulus-response mapping that had to be learned (LEARN task). We found an increased change of oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin during LEARN covering broad areas over right frontal, central and parietal cortex. Opposed to this, hemoglobin changes were less pronounced for RANDOM and APPLY. Along with the findings that fewer objects were caught during LEARN but stimulus-response mappings were successfully identified, we attribute the higher activations to an increased cognitive load when extracting an unknown mapping. This study therefore demonstrates a neuronal marker of cognitive control during gaming revealed by near-infrared spectroscopy recordings.

Learning to modulate one's own brain activity: the effect of spontaneous mental strategies.

Using neurofeedback (NF), individuals can learn to modulate their own brain activity, in most cases electroencephalographic (EEG) rhythms. Although a large body of literature reports positive effects of NF training on behavior and cognitive functions, there are hardly any reports on how participants can successfully learn to gain control over their own brain activity. About one third of people fail to gain significant control over their brain signals even after repeated training sessions. The reasons for this failure are still largely unknown. In this context, we investigated the effects of spontaneous mental strategies on NF performance. Twenty healthy participants performed either a SMR (sensorimotor rhythm, 12-15 Hz) based or a Gamma (40-43 Hz) based NF training over ten sessions. After the first and the last training session, they were asked to write down which mental strategy they have used for self-regulating their EEG. After the first session, all participants reported the use of various types of mental strategies such as visual strategies, concentration, or relaxation. After the last NF training session, four participants of the SMR group reported to employ no specific strategy. These four participants showed linear improvements in NF performance over the ten training sessions. In contrast, participants still reporting the use of specific mental strategies in the last NF session showed no changes in SMR based NF performance over the ten sessions. This effect could not be observed in the Gamma group. The Gamma group showed no prominent changes in Gamma power over the NF training sessions, regardless of the mental strategies used. These results indicate that successful SMR based NF performance is associated with implicit learning mechanisms. Participants stating vivid reports on strategies to control their SMR probably overload cognitive resources, which might be counterproductive in terms of increasing SMR power.

Control beliefs can predict the ability to up-regulate sensorimotor rhythm during neurofeedback training.

Technological progress in computer science and neuroimaging has resulted in many approaches that aim to detect brain states and translate them to an external output. Studies from the field of brain-computer interfaces (BCI) and neurofeedback (NF) have validated the coupling between brain signals and computer devices; however a cognitive model of the processes involved remains elusive. Psychological parameters usually play a moderate role in predicting the performance of BCI and NF users. The concept of a locus of control, i.e., whether one's own action is determined by internal or external causes, may help to unravel inter-individual performance capacities. Here, we present data from 20 healthy participants who performed a feedback task based on EEG recordings of the sensorimotor rhythm (SMR). One group of 10 participants underwent 10 training sessions where the amplitude of the SMR was coupled to a vertical feedback bar. The other group of ten participants participated in the same task but relied on sham feedback. Our analysis revealed that a locus of control score focusing on control beliefs with regard to technology negatively correlated with the power of SMR. These preliminary results suggest that participants whose confidence in control over technical devices is high might consume additional cognitive resources. This higher effort in turn may interfere with brain states of relaxation as reflected in the SMR. As a consequence, one way to improve control over brain signals in NF paradigms may be to explicitly instruct users not to force mastery but instead to aim at a state of effortless relaxation.

Individual differences in solving arithmetic word problems.

BACKGROUND: With the present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study at 3 T, we investigated the neural correlates of visualization and verbalization during arithmetic word problem solving. In the domain of arithmetic, visualization might mean to visualize numbers and (intermediate) results while calculating, and verbalization might mean that numbers and (intermediate) results are verbally repeated during calculation. If the brain areas involved in number processing are domain-specific as assumed, that is, that the left angular gyrus (AG) shows an affinity to the verbal domain, and that the left and right intraparietal sulcus (IPS) shows an affinity to the visual domain, the activation of these areas should show a dependency on an individual's cognitive style. METHODS: 36 healthy young adults participated in the fMRI study. The participants habitual use of visualization and verbalization during solving arithmetic word problems was assessed with a short self-report assessment. During the fMRI measurement, arithmetic word problems that had to be solved by the participants were presented in an event-related design. RESULTS: We found that visualizers showed greater brain activation in brain areas involved in visual processing, and that verbalizers showed greater brain activation within the left angular gyrus. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that cognitive styles or preferences play an important role in understanding brain activation. Our results confirm, that strong visualizers use mental imagery more strongly than weak visualizers during calculation. Moreover, our results suggest that the left AG shows a specific affinity to the verbal domain and subserves number processing in a modality-specific way.

Neural substrates of cognitive control under the belief of getting neurofeedback training.

Learning to modulate one's own brain activity is the fundament of neurofeedback (NF) applications. Besides the neural networks directly involved in the generation and modulation of the neurophysiological parameter being specifically trained, more general determinants of NF efficacy such as self-referential processes and cognitive control have been frequently disregarded. Nonetheless, deeper insight into these cognitive mechanisms and their neuronal underpinnings sheds light on various open NF related questions concerning individual differences, brain-computer interface (BCI) illiteracy as well as a more general model of NF learning. In this context, we investigated the neuronal substrate of these more general regulatory mechanisms that are engaged when participants believe that they are receiving NF. Twenty healthy participants (40-63 years, 10 female) performed a sham NF paradigm during fMRI scanning. All participants were novices to NF-experiments and were instructed to voluntarily modulate their own brain activity based on a visual display of moving color bars. However, the bar depicted a recording and not the actual brain activity of participants. Reports collected at the end of the experiment indicate that participants were unaware of the sham feedback. In comparison to a passive watching condition, bilateral insula, anterior cingulate cortex and supplementary motor and dorsomedial and lateral prefrontal areas were activated when participants actively tried to control the bar. In contrast, when merely watching moving bars, increased activation in the left angular gyrus was observed. These results show that the intention to control a moving bar is sufficient to engage a broad frontoparietal and cingulo-opercular network involved in cognitive control. The results of the present study indicate that tasks such as those generally employed in NF training recruit the neuronal correlates of cognitive control even when only sham NF is presented.