Timing of radiotherapy (RT) after radical prostatectomy (RP): long-term outcomes in the RADICALS-RT trial (NCT00541047).

BACKGROUND: The optimal timing of radiotherapy (RT) after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer has been uncertain. RADICALS-RT compared efficacy and safety of adjuvant RT versus an observation policy with salvage RT for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) failure. PATIENTS AND METHODS: RADICALS-RT was a randomised controlled trial enrolling patients with ≥1 risk factor (pT3/4, Gleason 7-10, positive margins, preoperative PSA≥10 ng/ml) for recurrence after radical prostatectomy. Patients were randomised 1:1 to adjuvant RT ('Adjuvant-RT') or an observation policy with salvage RT for PSA failure ('Salvage-RT') defined as PSA≥0.1 ng/ml or three consecutive rises. Stratification factors were Gleason score, margin status, planned RT schedule (52.5 Gy/20 fractions or 66 Gy/33 fractions) and treatment centre. The primary outcome measure was freedom-from-distant-metastasis (FFDM), designed with 80% power to detect an improvement from 90% with Salvage-RT (control) to 95% at 10 years with Adjuvant-RT. Secondary outcome measures were biochemical progression-free survival, freedom from non-protocol hormone therapy, safety and patient-reported outcomes. Standard survival analysis methods were used; hazard ratio (HR)<1 favours Adjuvant-RT. RESULTS: Between October 2007 and December 2016, 1396 participants from UK, Denmark, Canada and Ireland were randomised: 699 Salvage-RT, 697 Adjuvant-RT. Allocated groups were balanced with a median age of 65 years. Ninety-three percent (649/697) Adjuvant-RT reported RT within 6 months after randomisation; 39% (270/699) Salvage-RT reported RT during follow-up. Median follow-up was 7.8 years. With 80 distant metastasis events, 10-year FFDM was 93% for Adjuvant-RT and 90% for Salvage-RT: HR=0.68 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.43-1.07, P=0.095]. Of 109 deaths, 17 were due to prostate cancer. Overall survival was not improved (HR=0.980, 95% CI 0.667-1.440, P=0.917). Adjuvant-RT reported worse urinary and faecal incontinence 1 year after randomisation (P=0.001); faecal incontinence remained significant after 10 years (P=0.017). CONCLUSION: Long-term results from RADICALS-RT confirm adjuvant RT after radical prostatectomy increases the risk of urinary and bowel morbidity, but does not meaningfully improve disease control. An observation policy with salvage RT for PSA failure should be the current standard after radical prostatectomy. TRIAL IDENTIFICATION: RADICALS, RADICALS-RT, ISRCTN40814031, NCT00541047.

Exploring Conflicts in Whole Genome Phylogenetics: A Case Study Within Manakins (Aves: Pipridae).

Some phylogenetic problems remain unresolved even when large amounts of sequence data are analyzed and methods that accommodate processes such as incomplete lineage sorting are employed. In addition to investigating biological sources of phylogenetic incongruence, it is also important to reduce noise in the phylogenomic dataset by using appropriate filtering approach that addresses gene tree estimation errors. We present the results of a case study in manakins, focusing on the very difficult clade comprising the genera Antilophia and Chiroxiphia. Previous studies suggest that Antilophia is nested within Chiroxiphia, though relationships among Antilophia+Chiroxiphia species have been highly unstable. We extracted more than 11,000 loci (ultra-conserved elements and introns) from whole genomes and conducted analyses using concatenation and multispecies coalescent methods. Topologies resulting from analyses using all loci differed depending on the data type and analytical method, with 2 clades (Antilophia+Chiroxiphia and Manacus+Pipra+Machaeopterus) in the manakin tree showing incongruent results. We hypothesized that gene trees that conflicted with a long coalescent branch (e.g., the branch uniting Antilophia+Chiroxiphia) might be enriched for cases of gene tree estimation error, so we conducted analyses that either constrained those gene trees to include monophyly of Antilophia+Chiroxiphia or excluded these loci. While constraining trees reduced some incongruence, excluding the trees led to completely congruent species trees, regardless of the data type or model of sequence evolution used. We found that a suite of gene metrics (most importantly the number of informative sites and likelihood of intralocus recombination) collectively explained the loci that resulted in non-monophyly of Antilophia+Chiroxiphia. We also found evidence for introgression that may have contributed to the discordant topologies we observe in Antilophia+Chiroxiphia and led to deviations from expectations given the multispecies coalescent model. Our study highlights the importance of identifying factors that can obscure phylogenetic signal when dealing with recalcitrant phylogenetic problems, such as gene tree estimation error, incomplete lineage sorting, and reticulation events. [Birds; c-gene; data type; gene estimation error; model fit; multispecies coalescent; phylogenomics; reticulation].

A novel exome probe set captures phototransduction genes across birds (Aves) enabling efficient analysis of vision evolution.

The diversity of avian visual phenotypes provides a framework for studying mechanisms of trait diversification generally, and the evolution of vertebrate vision, specifically. Previous research has focused on opsins, but to fully understand visual adaptation, we must study the complete phototransduction cascade (PTC). Here, we developed a probe set that captures exonic regions of 46 genes representing the PTC and other light responses. For a subset of species, we directly compared gene capture between our probe set and low-coverage whole genome sequencing (WGS), and we discuss considerations for choosing between these methods. Finally, we developed a unique strategy to avoid chimeric assembly by using "decoy" reference sequences. We successfully captured an average of 64% of our targeted exome in 46 species across 14 orders using the probe set and had similar recovery using the WGS data. Compared to WGS or transcriptomes, our probe set: (1) reduces sequencing requirements by efficiently capturing vision genes, (2) employs a simpler bioinformatic pipeline by limiting required assembly and negating annotation, and (3) eliminates the need for fresh tissues, enabling researchers to leverage existing museum collections. We then utilized our vision exome data to identify positively selected genes in two evolutionary scenarios-evolution of night vision in nocturnal birds and evolution of high-speed vision specific to manakins (Pipridae). We found parallel positive selection of SLC24A1 in both scenarios, implicating the alteration of rod response kinetics, which could improve color discrimination in dim light conditions and/or facilitate higher temporal resolution.

Extracting phylogenetic signal from phylogenomic data: Higher-level relationships of the nightbirds (Strisores).

A well-resolved phylogeny would facilitate study of adaptation to nocturnality in the avian superorder Strisores, a group that includes both nocturnal and diurnal lineages. Based on previous estimates, it could be hypothesized that there were multiple independent origins of nocturnality in this group. In order to refine the Strisores phylogeny, we generated genome-scale datasets of 2289-4243 ultraconserved elements for 23 taxa representing all major living lineages in the group. Among the considerations for using genome-scale, molecular sequence data in phylogenomic analyses are issues related to GC content, GC variance and their effects on model selection. In this study, we employed a variety of analytical techniques to empirically investigate those issues in our data, as well as biases and errors resulting from alignment trimming, taxon selection, matrix completeness and evolutionary rate variation among sites and across lineages. Extensive analyses revealed conflict within the data, especially in regard to variation in GC content, that would not have been detected by more cursory study. Our results indicate that readily available models of molecular evolution are insufficient to encapsulate all phenomena present in genome-scale matrices, and that this problem may be at the root of many current issues in phylogenomic analysis. The analytical methods employed in this study are relevant to phylogenomic analysis of any large, heterogeneous matrix. In conclusion, we present a strongly supported estimate of the Strisores tree, and discuss visual adaptations for, and potential evolutionary pathways to, nocturnality in this clade.

Earth history and the passerine superradiation.

Avian diversification has been influenced by global climate change, plate tectonic movements, and mass extinction events. However, the impact of these factors on the diversification of the hyperdiverse perching birds (passerines) is unclear because family level relationships are unresolved and the timing of splitting events among lineages is uncertain. We analyzed DNA data from 4,060 nuclear loci and 137 passerine families using concatenation and coalescent approaches to infer a comprehensive phylogenetic hypothesis that clarifies relationships among all passerine families. Then, we calibrated this phylogeny using 13 fossils to examine the effects of different events in Earth history on the timing and rate of passerine diversification. Our analyses reconcile passerine diversification with the fossil and geological records; suggest that passerines originated on the Australian landmass ∼47 Ma; and show that subsequent dispersal and diversification of passerines was affected by a number of climatological and geological events, such as Oligocene glaciation and inundation of the New Zealand landmass. Although passerine diversification rates fluctuated throughout the Cenozoic, we find no link between the rate of passerine diversification and Cenozoic global temperature, and our analyses show that the increases in passerine diversification rate we observe are disconnected from the colonization of new continents. Taken together, these results suggest more complex mechanisms than temperature change or ecological opportunity have controlled macroscale patterns of passerine speciation.

What are the roles of taxon sampling and model fit in tests of cyto-nuclear discordance using avian mitogenomic data?

Conflicts between nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenies have led to uncertainty for some relationships within the tree of life. These conflicts have led some to question the value of mitochondrial DNA in phylogenetics now that genome-scale nuclear data can be readily obtained. However, since mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited and does not recombine, its phylogeny should be closer to the species tree. Additionally, its rapid evolutionary rate may drive accumulation of mutations along short internodes where relevant information from nuclear loci may be limited. In this study, we examine the mitochondrial phylogeny of Cavitaves to elucidate its congruence with recently published nuclear phylogenies of this group of birds. Cavitaves includes the orders Trogoniformes (trogons), Bucerotiformes (hornbills), Coraciiformes (kingfishers and allies), and Piciformes (woodpeckers and allies). We hypothesized that sparse taxon sampling in previously published mitochondrial trees was responsible for apparent cyto-nuclear discordance. To test this hypothesis, we assembled 27 additional Cavitaves mitogenomes and estimated phylogenies using seven different taxon sampling schemes ranging from five to 42 ingroup species. We also tested the role that partitioning and model choice played in the observed discordance. Our analyses demonstrated that improved taxon sampling could resolve many of the disagreements. Similarly, partitioning was valuable in improving congruence with the topology from nuclear phylogenies, though the model used to generate the mitochondrial phylogenies had less influence. Overall, our results suggest that the mitochondrial tree is trustworthy when partitioning is used with suitable taxon sampling.

Target enrichment of ultraconserved elements from arthropods provides a genomic perspective on relationships among Hymenoptera.

Gaining a genomic perspective on phylogeny requires the collection of data from many putatively independent loci across the genome. Among insects, an increasingly common approach to collecting this class of data involves transcriptome sequencing, because few insects have high-quality genome sequences available; assembling new genomes remains a limiting factor; the transcribed portion of the genome is a reasonable, reduced subset of the genome to target; and the data collected from transcribed portions of the genome are similar in composition to the types of data with which biologists have traditionally worked (e.g. exons). However, molecular techniques requiring RNA as a template, including transcriptome sequencing, are limited to using very high-quality source materials, which are often unavailable from a large proportion of biologically important insect samples. Recent research suggests that DNA-based target enrichment of conserved genomic elements offers another path to collecting phylogenomic data across insect taxa, provided that conserved elements are present in and can be collected from insect genomes. Here, we identify a large set (n = 1510) of ultraconserved elements (UCEs) shared among the insect order Hymenoptera. We used in silico analyses to show that these loci accurately reconstruct relationships among genome-enabled hymenoptera, and we designed a set of RNA baits (n = 2749) for enriching these loci that researchers can use with DNA templates extracted from a variety of sources. We used our UCE bait set to enrich an average of 721 UCE loci from 30 hymenopteran taxa, and we used these UCE loci to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships spanning very old (≥220 Ma) to very young (≤1 Ma) divergences among hymenopteran lineages. In contrast to a recent study addressing hymenopteran phylogeny using transcriptome data, we found ants to be sister to all remaining aculeate lineages with complete support, although this result could be explained by factors such as taxon sampling. We discuss this approach and our results in the context of elucidating the evolutionary history of one of the most diverse and speciose animal orders.

Effect of HER2 on prognosis and benefit from peri-operative chemotherapy in early oesophago-gastric adenocarcinoma in the MAGIC trial.

BACKGROUND: Perioperative epirubicin, cisplatin and fluorouracil (ECF) chemotherapy improves survival in operable oesophago-gastric cancer [Adjuvant Gastric Cancer Infusional Chemotherapy (MAGIC) trial HR 0.75 (0.6-0.93)]. HER2 amplification is reported to predict enhanced benefit from anthracyclines in breast cancer. We sought to define whether HER2 predicts benefit from ECF in oesophago-gastric cancer. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Diagnostic biopsies and/or resection specimens were collected from 415 of 503 MAGIC trial patients (82.5%). HER2 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC) and brightfield dual in situ hybridisation (BDISH) in tissue microarrays. The prognostic and predictive impact of HER2 status was investigated. RESULTS: Concordance between HER2 over-expression (IHC3+) and amplification was 96%. Results of HER2 assessment in biopsy and resection specimens were concordant in 92.9% (145/156). HER2 positive rate (IHC3+, or IHC2+/BDISH positive) was 10.9% in the whole cohort and 10.4% in resection specimens. A further 4.0% of resections were IHC negative/BDISH positive. HER2 status was neither prognostic, nor (in pre-treatment biopsies) predicted enhanced benefit from chemotherapy [HER2 positive HR 0.74 (0.14-3.77); HER2 negative HR 0.58 (0.41-0.82), interaction P = 0.7]. However, the power of the predictive analysis was limited by the small number of HER2 positive pre-treatment biopsies. CONCLUSIONS: HER2 status is not an independent prognostic biomarker in early oesophago-gastric adenocarcinoma.

Methylator phenotype of malignant germ cell tumours in children identifies strong candidates for chemotherapy resistance.

BACKGROUND: Yolk sac tumours (YSTs) and germinomas are the two major pure histological subtypes of germ cell tumours. To date, the role of DNA methylation in the aetiology of this class of tumour has only been analysed in adult testicular forms and with respect to only a few genes. METHODS: A bank of paediatric tumours was analysed for global methylation of LINE-1 repeat elements and global methylation of regulatory elements using GoldenGate methylation arrays. RESULTS: Both germinomas and YSTs exhibited significant global hypomethylation of LINE-1 elements. However, in germinomas, methylation of gene regulatory regions differed little from control samples, whereas YSTs exhibited increased methylation at a large proportion of the loci tested, showing a 'methylator' phenotype, including silencing of genes associated with Caspase-8-dependent apoptosis. Furthermore, we found that the methylator phenotype of YSTs was coincident with higher levels of expression of the DNA methyltransferase, DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase 3B, suggesting a mechanism underlying the phenotype. CONCLUSION: Epigenetic silencing of a large number of potential tumour suppressor genes in YSTs might explain why they exhibit a more aggressive natural history than germinomas and silencing of genes associated with Caspase-8-dependent cell death might explain the relative resistance of YSTs to conventional therapy.

Overcoming redundancy: an RNAi enhancer screen for morphogenesis genes in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Morphogenesis is an important component of animal development. Genetic redundancy has been proposed to be common among morphogenesis genes, posing a challenge to the genetic dissection of morphogenesis mechanisms. Genetic redundancy is more generally a challenge in biology, as large proportions of the genes in diverse organisms have no apparent loss of function phenotypes. Here, we present a screen designed to uncover redundant and partially redundant genes that function in an example of morphogenesis, gastrulation in Caenorhabditis elegans. We performed an RNA interference (RNAi) enhancer screen in a gastrulation-sensitized double-mutant background, targeting genes likely to be expressed in gastrulating cells or their neighbors. Secondary screening identified 16 new genes whose functions contribute to normal gastrulation in a nonsensitized background. We observed that for most new genes found, the closest known homologs were multiple other C. elegans genes, suggesting that some may have derived from rounds of recent gene duplication events. We predict that such genes are more likely than single copy genes to comprise redundant or partially redundant gene families. We explored this prediction for one gene that we identified and confirmed that this gene and five close relatives, which encode predicted substrate recognition subunits (SRSs) for a CUL-2 ubiquitin ligase, do indeed function partially redundantly with each other in gastrulation. Our results implicate new genes in C. elegans gastrulation, and they show that an RNAi-based enhancer screen in C. elegans can be used as an efficient means to identify important but redundant or partially redundant developmental genes.