Generation and Evaluation of Bispecific Anti-TNF Antibodies Based on Single-Chain VHH Domains.

Systemic cytokine inhibition may be an effective therapeutic strategy for several autoimmune diseases. However, recent studies suggest that tissue or cell type-specific targeting of certain cytokines, including TNF, may have distinct advantages and show fewer side effects. Here we describe protocols for generating and testing bispecific cytokine inhibitors using variable domain of single-chain antibodies from Camelidae (VHH) with a focus on cell-specific TNF inhibitors.

[Proinflammatory Cytokines and Skin Wound Healing in Mice].

Skin wound healing is subject to an intricate regulation, involves many cell populations and molecular mediators, and is one of the key mechanisms that ensures the barrier functions of the skin and the maintenance of body homeostasis. The efficiency of this process is largely determined by the balance of proinflammatory and proregenerative signals, which are mediated by cytokines. The review summarizes the latest data on the role of proinflammatory cytokines, mainly tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin 6 (IL-6), interleukin 1 (IL-1), and interferons (IFNs), in skin wound healing, including those obtained with the use of genome editing techniques and methods of reverse genetics to establish relevant animal models. The roles that proinflammatory cytokines play at various stages of skin regeneration are discussed for both normal state and systemic pathologies, such as diabetes. Promising approaches to treating poorly healing wounds are summarized.

Neonatal Lethality and Inflammatory Phenotype of the New Transgenic Mice with Overexpression of Human Interleukin-6 in Myeloid Cells.

To model human interleukin-6 (hIL-6) associated diseases, unique mice with transgenic overexpression of human IL-6 and reporter fluorescent protein EGFP in cells of macrophage-monocyte lineage were generated using loxP-Cre system. High level of hIL-6 production by macrophages and monocytes, as confirmed in vitro in primary culture of bone marrow-derived macrophages, in vivo resulted in early postnatal death in vivo, presumably, due to the effect of overexpression of hIL-6 on hematopoiesis.

[Proinflammatory and Immunoregulatory Functions of Interleukin 6 as Identified by Reverse Genetics].

Reverse genetics approach, involving genome editing, makes it possible not only to establish the nonredundant and unique functions of genes and their products, but also to construct animal models for biomedical research. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is an important immunoregulatory and proinflammatory cytokine that differs from many related proteins in having a rather complicated signal transduction scheme. Apart from the multiple functions of IL-6, the most relevant biological problem of recent years was establishing what cells produce IL-6, in what form IL-6 is produced, what cells are recipients of the IL-6 signal, and what are the downstream events and physiological consequences of the IL-6 signaling cascade. Because IL-6 is involved in the pathogenesis of many diseases and is a drug target, understanding the mechanisms of its normal and pathogenic effects is important for the clinics. The review summarizes the recent data available in the field.

Induction of ICAM-1 Expression in Mouse Embryonic Fibroblasts Cultured on Fibroin-Gelatin Scaffolds.

Culturing of allogeneic or autologous cells in three-dimensional bioresorbable scaffolds is an important step in the engineering of constructs for regenerative medicine, as well as for experimental systems to study the mechanisms of cell differentiation and cell-to-cell interaction. Artificial substrates can modulate the phenotype and functional activity of immobilized cells. Investigating these changes is important for understanding the fundamental processes underlying cellular interactions in a 3D microenvironment and for improving tissue-engineered structures. In this study, we investigated the expression of the ICAM-1 adhesion molecule in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) when cultured on gelatin-fibroin scaffolds. Increased expression of ICAM-1 in MEF was detected only under 3D culture conditions both at the mRNA and protein levels. At the same time, the MEF cultured on various substrates did not oerexpress MAdCAM-1, indicating the selective effect of 3D culture conditions on ICAM-1 expression. One possible mechanism for ICAM-1 induction in MEF is associated with the activation of AP-1, since expression of c-Fos and Junb (but not cJun and Jund) was increased in MEF in 3D. When cultured under 2D conditions, the expression level of AP-1 components did not change.

Effects of Fibroin Microcarriers on Inflammation and Regeneration of Deep Skin Wounds in Mice.

The process of tissue regeneration following damage takes place with direct participation of the immune system. The use of biomaterials as scaffolds to facilitate healing of skin wounds is a new and interesting area of regenerative medicine and biomedical research. In many ways, the regenerative potential of biological material is related to its ability to modulate the inflammatory response. At the same time, all foreign materials, once implanted into a living tissue, to varying degree cause an immune reaction. The modern approach to the development of bioengineered structures for applications in regenerative medicine should be directed toward using the properties of the inflammatory response that improve healing, but do not lead to negative chronic manifestations. In this work, we studied the effect of microcarriers comprised of either fibroin or fibroin supplemented with gelatin on the dynamics of the healing, as well as inflammation, during regeneration of deep skin wounds in mice. We found that subcutaneous administration of microcarriers to the wound area resulted in uniform contraction of the wounds in mice in our experimental model, and microcarrier particles induced the infiltration of immune cells. This was associated with increased expression of proinflammatory cytokines TNF, IL-6, IL-1ß, and chemokines CXCL1 and CXCL2, which contributed to full functional recovery of the injured area and the absence of fibrosis as compared to the control group.

Bioengineering of Artificial Lymphoid Organs.

This review addresses the issue of bioengineering of artificial lymphoid organs.Progress in this field may help to better understand the nature of the structure-function relations that exist in immune organs. Artifical lymphoid organs may also be advantageous in the therapy or correction of immunodefficiencies, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. The structural organization, development, and function of lymphoid tissue are analyzed with a focus on the role of intercellular contacts and on the cytokine signaling pathways regulating these processes. We describe various polymeric materials, as scaffolds, for artificial tissue engineering. Finally, published studies in which artificial lymphoid organs were generated are reviewed and possible future directions in the field are discussed.

[Interleukin-6 From molecular mechanisms of signal transduction to physiological properties and therapeutic targeting].

Interleukin-6 (IL-6)--one of the most important pro-inflammatory cytokines that has a broad spectrum of immunoregulatory properties. Molecular mechanisms of signal transduction of IL-6 and its receptor, which were previously established, have recently been supplemented with a concept of trans-signaling. Selective inhibition of this signaling cascade would allow to modulate the pathological effects of IL-6. Methods of reverse genetics have helped to establish the physiological functions of IL-6 in normal state and in various diseases, including neoplasias. Therapeutic inhibitors of IL-6 or its receptor are already used for the treatment of several autoimmune diseases, however, systemic inhibition inevitably also neutralizes the protective functions of this cytokine. It is expected that in the future systemic therapy will be replaced by more specific and effective approaches that take into account the peculiarities of molecular signaling pathways in target cells and differences in the function of IL-6, depending on the cell source.