Long-term effects of non-linear frequency compression for children with moderate hearing loss.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate non-linear frequency compression (NLFC) as a means to improve speech recognition for children with moderate to moderately-severe hearing loss following a six-month acclimatization period. DESIGN: Within subject design with repeated measures across test conditions. STUDY SAMPLE: Fifteen children, ages 5 to 13 years, with moderate to moderately-severe high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss were fitted with Phonak Nios, micro-sized, BTE hearing aids and evaluated after two six-week intervals with and without NLFC and again after a six-month period of consecutive NLFC use. RESULTS: Using repeated measures analyses, the six-month results were compared to data that was collected following six-week trials with and without NLFC hearing aids (Wolfe et al, in press). Improvements seen with NLFC in the initial study (Wolfe et al, in press) were maintained or significantly increased in the present study. When compared to the six-week data, aided non-sense syllable speech recognition thresholds in quiet and speech recognition in noise were significantly better at the six-month interval. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that NLFC improves audibility for and recognition of high-frequency speech sounds for children with moderate to moderately-severe hearing loss. In many cases, improvements found with NLFC increased with a longer period of acclimatization to the technology.

Advantages of a non-linear frequency compression algorithm in noise.

A multichannel non-linear frequency compression algorithm was evaluated in comparison to conventional amplification hearing aids using a test of speech understanding in noise (Oldenburger Satztest-OLSA) and subjective questionnaires. The new algorithm compresses frequencies above a pre-calculated cut off frequency and shifts them to a lower frequency range, thereby providing high-frequency audibility. Low-frequencies, below the compression cut off frequency, are amplified normally. This algorithm is called SoundRecover (SR). In this study, 11 experienced hearing aid users with a severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss were tested. Seven subjects showed enhanced levels of understanding in noise (OLSA) using frequency compression. However, 4 out of the 11 subjects could not benefit from the high-frequency gain. Evaluation using questionnaires demonstrated an increased level of satisfaction after 2 months of experimental devices wearing (p = 0.08) and after 4 months of wearing (p = 0.09), respectively, compared to conventional hearing instruments.

Evaluation of nonlinear frequency compression for school-age children with moderate to moderately severe hearing loss.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has indicated that children with moderate hearing loss experience difficulty with recognition of high-frequency speech sounds, such as fricatives and affricates. Conventional behind-the-ear (BTE) amplification typically does not provide ample output in the high frequencies (4000 Hz and beyond) to ensure optimal audibility for these sounds. PURPOSE: To evaluate nonlinear frequency compression (NLFC) as a means to improve speech recognition for children with moderate to moderately severe hearing loss. RESEARCH DESIGN: Within subject, crossover design with repeated measures across test conditions. STUDY SAMPLE: Fifteen children, aged 5-13 yr, with moderate to moderately severe high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss were fitted with Phonak Nios, microsized, BTE hearing aids. These children were previous users of digital hearing aids and communicated via spoken language. Their speech and language abilities were age-appropriate. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Aided thresholds and speech recognition in quiet and in noise were assessed after 6 wk of use with NLFC and 6 wk of use without NLFC. Participants were randomly assigned to counter-balanced groups so that eight participants began the first 6 wk trial with NLFC enabled and the other seven participants started with NLFC disabled. Then, the provision of NLFC was switched for the second 6 wk trial. Speech recognition in quiet was assessed via word recognition assessments with the University of Western Ontario (UWO) Plural Test and recognition of vowel-consonant-vowel nonsense syllables with the Phonak Logatome test. Speech recognition in noise was assessed by evaluating the signal-to-noise ratio in dB for 50% correct performance on the Bamford-Kowal-Bench Speech-in-Noise (BKB-SIN) test, an adaptive test of speech perception in a multitalker babble background. RESULTS: Aided thresholds for high-frequency stimuli were significantly better when NLFC was enabled, and use of NLFC resulted in significantly better speech recognition in quiet for the UWO Plural Test and for the phonemes /d/ and /s/ on the Phonak Logatome test. There was not a statistically significant difference in performance on the BKB-SIN test between the NLFC enabled and disabled conditions. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that NLFC improves audibility for and recognition of high-frequency speech sounds for children with moderate to moderately severe hearing loss in quiet listening situations.

Chronic clozapine treatment improves prenatal infection-induced working memory deficits without influencing adult hippocampal neurogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Converging evidence indicates that prenatal exposure to immune challenge can induce long-term cognitive deficits relevant to schizophrenia. Such cognitive impairments may be related to deficient hippocampal neurogenesis at adult age. OBJECTIVES: In the present study, we sought evidence for the possibility that chronic treatment with the reference atypical antipsychotic drug clozapine may improve prenatal infection-induced cognitive dysfunctions by stimulating adult hippocampal neurogenesis. METHODS: This hypothesis was tested in a well-established mouse model of prenatal immune challenge which is based on prenatal administration of the viral mimic, polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidilic acid (PolyI:C). RESULTS: We found that maternal PolyI:C (5 mg/kg, i.v.) exposure on gestation day 17 led to significant spatial working memory impairment and reduced hippocampal neurogenesis in the resulting offspring at adult age. The latter effect was apparent in postmortem immunohistochemical analyses of the cell proliferation marker bromodeoxyuridine and the microtubule-associated protein doublecortin, a marker of newborn neuronal cells. Chronic (3 weeks) administration of clozapine (5 mg/kg/day, i.p.) significantly improved the prenatal PolyI:C-induced working memory deficits, while at the same time, it negatively affected working memory performance in adult offspring born to control mothers. These bidirectional cognitive effects of clozapine were not paralleled by concomitant effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings do not support the hypothesis that the atypical antipsychotic drug clozapine may influence cognitive functions by acting on adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus, regardless of whether the drug is administered to subjects with or without a neurodevelopmental predisposition to adult neuropathology.

Abnormal differentiation of newborn granule cells in age-related working memory impairments.

Age-related declines in spatial memory have been linked to abnormal functional properties and connectivity of newborn granule cells. However, the relationship between adult neurogenesis, aging, and cognitive performance seems more complex than previously anticipated, likely due to the difficulty of disentangling alterations related to training as such and those associated with cognitive performance. Here, we investigated how different aspects of adult neurogenesis might be related to training, age and cognitive performance amongst aged subjects by comparing behaviourally naïve and tested rats of 3, 6, 24mo of age. We separated aged rats into learning-impaired and -unimpaired groups based on their performance in the Morris water maze to investigate neurogenesis-related morphological and neurochemical changes. We report an age-related decline in cell proliferation and maturation independent of cognitive performance and testing. We confirm an age-related altered differentiation of newborn neurons which was particularly prominent in learning-impaired rats. This was associated with an abnormally prolonged expression of the early progenitor marker Nestin, potentially also affecting maturation, survival/integration of newborn neurons into existing neuronal networks, which might underlie the individual differences in cognitive performance during aging.

Age-related accumulation of Reelin in amyloid-like deposits.

Accumulating evidence suggest that alterations in Reelin-mediated signaling may contribute to neuronal dysfunction associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of senile dementia. However, limited information is available on the effect of age, the major risk factor of AD, on Reelin expression. Here, we report that normal aging in rodents and primates is accompanied by accumulation of Reelin-enriched proteinous aggregates in the hippocampal formation that are related to the loss of Reelin-expressing neurons. Both phenomena are associated with age-related memory impairments in wild-type mice. We provide evidence that normal aging involves loss of Reelin neurons, reduced production and elimination of the extracellular deposits, whereas a prenatal immune challenge or the expression of AD-causing gene products, result in earlier, higher, and more persistent levels of Reelin-positive deposits. These aggregates co-localize with non-fibrillary amyloid-plaques, potentially representing oligomeric Abeta species. Our findings suggest that elevated Reelin plaque load creates a precursor condition for senile plaque deposition and may represent a critical risk factor for sporadic AD.

Adult brain and behavioral pathological markers of prenatal immune challenge during early/middle and late fetal development in mice.

Maternal infection during pregnancy increases the risk for neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism in the offspring. This association appears to be critically dependent on the precise prenatal timing. However, the extent to which distinct adult psychopathological and neuropathological traits may be sensitive to the precise times of prenatal immune activation remains to be further characterized. Here, we evaluated in a mouse model of prenatal immune challenge by the viral mimic, polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidilic acid (PolyIC), whether prenatal immune activation in early/middle and late gestation may influence the susceptibility to some of the critical cognitive, pharmacological, and neuroanatomical dysfunctions implicated in schizophrenia and autism. We revealed that PolyIC-induced prenatal immune challenge on gestation day (GD) 9 but not GD17 significantly impaired sensorimotor gating and reduced prefrontal dopamine D1 receptors in adulthood, whereas prenatal immune activation specifically in late gestation impaired working memory, potentiated the locomotor reaction to the NMDA-receptor antagonist dizocilpine, and reduced hippocampal NMDA-receptor subunit 1 expression. On the other hand, potentiation of the locomotor reaction to the dopamine-receptor agonist amphetamine and reduction in Reelin- and Parvalbumin-expressing prefrontal neurons emerged independently of the precise times of prenatal immune challenge. Our findings thus highlight that prenatal immune challenge during early/middle and late fetal development in mice leads to distinct brain and behavioral pathological symptom clusters in adulthood. Further examination and evaluation of in utero immune challenge at different times of gestation may provide important new insight into the neuroimmunological and neuropathological mechanisms underlying the segregation of different symptom clusters in heterogeneous neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and autism.

Relative prenatal and postnatal maternal contributions to schizophrenia-related neurochemical dysfunction after in utero immune challenge.

Prenatal exposure to infections represents a risk factor for the emergence of neuropsychiatric disorders in later life, including schizophrenia and autism. However, it remains essentially unknown whether this association is primarily attributable to prenatal and/or postnatal maternal effects on the offspring. Here, we addressed this issue by dissecting the relative contributions of prenatal inflammatory events and postnatal maternal factors in an animal model of prenatal viral-like infection. Pregnant mice were exposed to the inflammatory agent polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidilic acid (PolyI:C; 5 mg/kg, i.v.) or vehicle treatment on gestation day 9, and offspring born to PolyI:C- and vehicle-treated dams were cross fostered to surrogate rearing mothers that had either experienced inflammatory or sham treatment during pregnancy. We demonstrate that a variety of dopamine- and glutamate-related pharmacological and neuroanatomical disturbances emerge after prenatal immune challenge regardless of whether neonates were raised by vehicle- or PolyI:C-exposed surrogate mothers. However, the adoption of prenatal control animals to immune-challenged surrogate mothers was also sufficient to induce specific pharmacological and neuroanatomical abnormalities in the fostered offspring. Multiple schizophrenia-related dysfunctions emerging after prenatal immune challenge are thus mediated by prenatal but not postnatal maternal effects on the offspring, but immunological stress during pregnancy may affect postpartum maternal factors in such a way that being reared by an immune-challenged surrogate mother can confer risk for distinct forms of psychopathology in adult life.

Differential expression of PSD proteins in age-related spatial learning impairments.

Deficits in hippocampus-dependent spatial learning that are typical for a subpopulation of aged rats are not associated with loss of neurons or excitatory synapses but accompanied by significant reduction of postsynaptic density (PSD) area in perforated synapses. Here, we examined whether structural alterations in aged learning-impaired rats correlate with altered content of PSD proteins which are critically involved in normal synaptic function. Spatial memory tasks were used to separate male rats into young, aged learning-unimpaired and impaired groups. Semi-quantitative immunohistochemistry revealed significant alterations in the content of the AMPA receptor GluR1 subunit, PSD-95 and synGAP in the hippocampal formation of aged-learning impaired compared to aged-unimpaired and young rats. While synGAP expression was reduced, GluR1 and PSD95 levels were selectively increased in aged-learning-impaired subjects. These findings suggest that age-induced changes of the PSD protein expression levels are more pronounced in learning-impaired rats compared to unimpaired subjects and that the alterations in synaptic protein content may result in reduced synaptic function, potentially underlying the individual differences in mnemonic functions during aging.

Changes in levels of D1, D2, or NMDA receptors during withdrawal from brief or extended daily access to IV cocaine.

We previously reported that brief (1 h), but not extended (6 h), daily access to cocaine results in a sensitized locomotor response to cocaine and in elevated c-Fos immunoreactivity and DAT binding in the nucleus accumbens (N.Acc) core. In order to better our understanding of the neural adaptations mediating the transition from controlled drug use to addiction, the current experiments were set to further explore the neural adaptations resulting from these two access conditions. Rats received either brief daily access to saline or cocaine, or brief daily access followed by extended daily access to cocaine. Subjects were then sacrificed either 20 min, or 14 or 60 days, after the last self-administration session. Samples of the ventral tegmental area (VTA), N.Acc core and shell, dorsal striatum, and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) were taken for analysis of D1 ([3H]SCH-23390), D2 ([3H]Spiperone), and NMDA ([3H]MK-801) receptor binding (using the method of receptor autoradiography). At 20 min into withdrawal, D2 receptors were elevated and NMDA receptors were reduced in the mPFC of the brief access animals while D1 receptors were elevated in the N.Acc shell of the extended access animals, compared to saline controls. D2 receptors were reduced in the N.Acc shell of the brief access animals compared to saline controls after 14 days, and compared to extended access animals after 60 days of withdrawal. In summary, extended access to cocaine resulted in only transient changes in D1 receptors binding. These results suggest that the development of compulsive drug use is largely unrelated to changes in total binding of D2 or NMDA receptors.

The time of prenatal immune challenge determines the specificity of inflammation-mediated brain and behavioral pathology.

Disturbance to early brain development is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders including autism, schizophrenia, and mental retardation. Epidemiological studies have indicated that the risk of developing these disorders is enhanced by prenatal maternal infection, presumably as a result of neurodevelopmental defects triggered by cytokine-related inflammatory events. Here, we demonstrate that the effects of maternal immune challenge between middle and late gestation periods in mice are dissociable in terms of fetal brain cytokine responses to maternal inflammation and the pathological consequences in brain and behavior. Specifically, the relative expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in the fetal brains in response to maternal immune challenge may be an important determinant among other developmental factors for the precise pathological profile emerging in later life. Thus, the middle and late gestation periods correspond to two windows with differing vulnerability to adult behavioral dysfunction, brain neuropathology in early adolescence, and of the acute cytokine responses in the fetal brain.

Influence of differential housing on emotional behaviour and neurotrophin levels in mice.

Environmental enrichment condition (EC) induces profound behavioural, neurochemical and neuroanatomical changes. Increasing evidence has shown that the hippocampus, which is implicated in a range of cognitive functions, including learning and memory, is one of the most susceptible brain areas to the effects of enriched rearing. Recent work also suggests that the hippocampus is functionally segregated; lesion studies have shown that the dorsal hippocampus is important for spatial learning, whereas the ventral part is critical in emotional behaviour in rats. We investigated the effects of differential housing environments on anxiety-related behaviour and neurotrophin levels in dorsal and ventral hippocampus, and other brain regions. Ninety-six male and female C57BL/6 mice were reared in EC or standard housing condition (SC) for 4 months after weaning. Thereafter sixty-four animals were tested in the elevated plus-maze, open-field, novel-objects exploration and food neophobia. Thirty-two animals remained as untested. Subsequently, brain nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were analysed in selected brain regions of the tested and non-tested animals. Differential housing influenced anxiety-related behaviour in the plus-maze and brain neurotrophins. Baseline levels of BDNF and NGF protein were differently distributed in dorsal and ventral parts of hippocampus in both male and female mice, with levels in the dorsal hippocampal being consistently higher than those in ventral hippocampus. Exposure to behavioural testing induced complex changes on neurotrophin levels in selected brain regions. This study demonstrates for the first time the differential distribution of normal levels of neurotrophin protein in dorsal and ventral hippocampus in mice, and these levels can be affected by environmental enrichment and have an impact on emotional behaviour.