Validation of a sub-epidermal moisture scanner for early detection of pressure ulcers in an ex vivo porcine model of localized oedema.

Pressure ulcers (PUs) remain a chronic health problem with severe impacts on healthcare systems. Early detection is crucial to providing effective interventions. However, detecting PUs currently relies on subjective tissue evaluations, such as visual skin assessment, precluding interventions prior to the development of visible tissue damage. There is an unmet need for solutions that can detect early tissue damage before visual and tactile signs occur. Assessments based on sub-epidermal moisture (SEM) measurements represent an opportunity for robust and objective early detection of PUs, preventing broken skin PUs in more high-risk patients at high-risk anatomical locations. While SEM assessment technology has been validated in computational, bench and tissue phantom models, validation in soft tissue was absent. In this study, we successfully validated the ability of a commercially available SEM assessment device to measure and detect sub-epidermal moisture changes in a novel ex vivo porcine soft tissue model of localised oedema. When controlled and incremental fluid volumes (Phosphate Buffer Solution) were injected into porcine soft tissues, statistically significant differences were found in SEM values between fluid-injected sites, representing an inflammatory oedematous condition, and healthy tissue control sites, as measured by the SEM device. The device provided reproducible readings by detecting localised oedema changes in soft tissues, reflecting the build-up of fluid as small as 1 ml into the underlying tissue. Spatial characterization experiments described the ability of the device technology to differentiate between healthy and oedematous tissue. Our findings validate the use of SEM assessment technology to measure and quantify localized oedema.

Development of a 3D-printed bioabsorbable composite scaffold with mechanical properties suitable for treating large, load-bearingarticular cartilage defects.

Extracellular matrix (ECM) biomaterials have shown promise for treating small artucular-joint defetcs. However, ECM-based biomaterials generally lack appropriate mechanical properties to support physiological loads and are prone to delamination in larger cartilage defects. To overcome these common mechanical limitations, a collagen hyaluronic-acid (CHyA) matrix, with proven regenerative potential, was reinforced with a bioabsorbable 3D-printed framework to support physiological loads. Polycaprolactone (PCL) was 3D-printed in two configurations, rectilinear and gyroid designs, that were extensively mechanically characterised. Both scaffold designs increased the compressive modulus of the CHyA matrices by three orders of magnitude, mimicking the physiological range (0.5-2.0 MPa) of healthy cartilage. The gyroid scaffold proved to be more flexible compared to the rectilinear scaffold, thus better contouring to the curvature of a femoral condyle. Additionally, PCL reinforcement of the CHyA matrix increased the tensile modulus and allowed for suture fixation of the scaffold to the subchondral bone, thus addressing the major challenge of biomaterial fixation to articular joint surfaces in shallow defects. In vitro evaluation confirmed successful infiltration of human mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) within the PCL-CHyA scaffolds, which resulted in increased production of sulphated glycosaminoglycans (sGAG/DNA; p = 0.0308) compared to non-reinforced CHyA matrices. Histological staining using alcian blue confirmed these results, while also indicating greater spatial distribution of sGAG throughout the PCL-CHyA scaffold. These findings have a great clinical importance as they provide evidence that reinforced PCL-CHyA scaffolds, with their increased chondroinductive potential and compatibility with joint fixation techniques, could be used to repair large-area chondral defects that currently lack effective treatment options.

Development and in vitro investigation of a biodegradable mesh for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence.

INTRODUCTION AND HYPOTHESIS: The use of polypropylene (PP) mesh for stress urinary incontinence (SUI) surgery has declined because of safety concerns. The aim of this study is to evaluate a biodegradable polycaprolactone (PCL) mesh and a PCL composite mesh tissue engineered with human uterine fibroblasts (HUFs) for SUI surgery by comparing mechanical properties and in vitro biocompatibility to commercially available PP and porcine dermis (PD). METHODS: The mechanical properties of four scaffold materials were evaluated: PCL, PCL-collagen-hyaluronic acid composite, acellular porcine dermal collagen (PD) (Pelvicol™) and polypropylene (Gynecare TVT™ Exact®). HUFs were seeded on separate scaffolds. After 7 and 14 days scaffolds were assessed for metabolic activity and cell proliferation using Alamar Blue, Live/Dead and PicoGreen assays. Soluble collagen production was evaluated using a Sircol assay. RESULTS: PCL and the composite scaffold reached ultimate tensile strength (UTS) values closest to healthy pelvic floor tissue (PCL = 1.19 MPa; composite = 1.13 MPa; pelvic floor = 0.79 MPa; Lei et al. Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct. 18(6):603-7, 2007). Cells on PCL showed significantly greater cell viability than PP at day 7 (p < 0.0001). At D14 the composite scaffold showed significantly greater cell viability than PP (p = 0.0006). PCL was the best performing scaffold for soluble collagen production at day 14 (106.1 µg versus 13.04 µg for PP, p = 0.0173). CONCLUSIONS: We have designed a biodegradable PCL mesh and a composite mesh which demonstrate better biocompatibility than PP and mechanical properties closer to that of healthy pelvic floor tissue. This in vitro study provides promising evidence that these two implants should be evaluated in animal and human trials.

A new semi-orthotopic bone defect model for cell and biomaterial testing in regenerative medicine.

In recent decades, an increasing number of tissue engineered bone grafts have been developed. However, expensive and laborious screenings in vivo are necessary to assess the safety and efficacy of their formulations. Rodents are the first choice for initial in vivo screens but their size limits the dimensions and number of the bone grafts that can be tested in orthotopic locations. Here, we report the development of a refined murine subcutaneous model for semi-orthotopic bone formation that allows the testing of up to four grafts per mouse one order of magnitude greater in volume than currently possible in mice. Crucially, these defects are also "critical size" and unable to heal within the timeframe of the study without intervention. The model is based on four bovine bone implants, ring-shaped, where the bone healing potential of distinct grafts can be evaluated in vivo. In this study we demonstrate that promotion and prevention of ossification can be assessed in our model. For this, we used a semi-automatic algorithm for longitudinal micro-CT image registration followed by histological analyses. Taken together, our data supports that this model is suitable as a platform for the real-time screening of bone formation, and provides the possibility to study bone resorption, osseointegration and vascularisation.

Biodegradable materials for surgical management of stress urinary incontinence: A narrative review.

Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) was managed with techniques such as colposuspension, autologous fascia sling and urethral bulking agents. The introduction of the mid-urethral polypropylene (PP) sling in the 1990s led to a significant and rapid global change in SUI surgery. The synthetic non-degradable PP sling had superior results to traditional SUI procedures but its use has now declined due to significant complications such as pain and mesh erosion. These complications are attributed to its poor biocompatibility and integration into vaginal tissues. The efficacy of PP was extrapolated from studies on abdominal wall repair and it is now clear that integration of implanted materials in the pelvic floor differs from the abdominal wall. With PP prohibited in some jurisdictions, female patients with SUI have few management options. In the present review we summarise recent advances in SUI surgery and evaluate potential alternatives to PP slings with a particular focus on degradable materials. Allograft and xenograft materials demonstrate good biocompatibility but have yielded suboptimal cure rates. Tissue engineered synthetic degradable materials outperform unmodified synthetic degradable materials in terms of biomechanics and cell support. Synthetic tissue engineered degradable materials show promising results from in vitro studies and future research should focus on animal and human trials in this field.

Anti-Ageing Protein ß-Klotho Rejuvenates Diabetic Stem Cells for Improved Gene-Activated Scaffold Based Wound Healing.

Skin wounds can lead to serious morbidity complications in diabetic patients due to the reduced healing potential of autologous stem cells. One reason for the low functional potency of stem cells from diabetic patients (diabetic stem cells) is attributed to their senescent-like nature. Here, we investigated if an anti-ageing protein, ß-klotho, could be used to rejuvenate diabetic stem cells and to promote pro-angiogenic gene-activated scaffold (GAS)-induced functional response for wound healing applications. Human stem cells derived from the adipose tissue (adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs)) of normal and diabetic (type 2) donors were used for the study. We report that the ß-klotho priming facilitated inflammatory signal pruning by reducing interleukin-8 release by more than half while concurrently doubling the release of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1. Additionally, ß-klotho priming enhanced the pro-angiogenic response of diabetic ADSCs on GAS by dampening the release of anti-angiogenic factors (i.e., pigment epithelium-derived factor, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 and thrombospondin-1) while simultaneously supporting the expression of pro-angiogenic factors (i.e., Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF), angiopoietin-2 and angiogenin). Finally, we show that ß-klotho pre-treatment expedites the cellular expression of matrix proteins such as collagen IV and collagen VI, which are implicated in tissue maturation. Taken together, our study provides evidence that the synergistic effect of the pro-angiogenic GAS and ß-klotho activation effectively accelerates the functional development of diabetic ADSCs for wound healing applications.

Pore-forming bioinks to enable spatio-temporally defined gene delivery in bioprinted tissues.

The regeneration of complex tissues and organs remains a major clinical challenge. With a view towards bioprinting such tissues, we developed a new class of pore-forming bioink to spatially and temporally control the presentation of therapeutic genes within bioprinted tissues. By blending sacrificial and stable hydrogels, we were able to produce bioinks whose porosity increased with time following printing. When combined with amphipathic peptide-based plasmid DNA delivery, these bioinks supported enhanced non-viral gene transfer to stem cells in vitro. By modulating the porosity of these bioinks, it was possible to direct either rapid and transient (pore-forming bioinks), or slower and more sustained (solid bioinks) transfection of host or transplanted cells in vivo. To demonstrate the utility of these bioinks for the bioprinting of spatially complex tissues, they were next used to zonally position stem cells and plasmids encoding for either osteogenic (BMP2) or chondrogenic (combination of TGF-ß3, BMP2 and SOX9) genes within networks of 3D printed thermoplastic fibers to produce mechanically reinforced, gene activated constructs. In vivo, these bioprinted tissues supported the development of a vascularised, bony tissue overlaid by a layer of stable cartilage. When combined with multiple-tool biofabrication strategies, these gene activated bioinks can enable the bioprinting of a wide range of spatially complex tissues.

Biomaterial-based endochondral bone regeneration: a shift from traditional tissue engineering paradigms to developmentally inspired strategies.

There is an urgent, clinical need for an alternative to the use of autologous grafts for the ever increasing number of bone grafting procedures performed annually. Herein, we describe a developmentally inspired approach to bone tissue engineering, which focuses on leveraging biomaterials as platforms for recapitulating the process of endochondral ossification. To begin, we describe the traditional biomaterial-based approaches to tissue engineering that have been investigated as methods to promote in vivo bone regeneration, including the use of three-dimensional biomimetic scaffolds, the delivery of growth factors and recombinant proteins, and the in vitro engineering of mineralized bone-like tissue. Thereafter, we suggest that some of the hurdles encountered by these traditional tissue engineering approaches may be circumvented by modulating the endochondral route to bone repair and, to that end, we assess various biomaterials that can be used in combination with cells and signaling factors to engineer hypertrophic cartilaginous grafts capable of promoting endochondral bone formation. Finally, we examine the emerging trends in biomaterial-based approaches to endochondral bone regeneration, such as the engineering of anatomically shaped templates for bone and osteochondral tissue engineering, the fabrication of mechanically reinforced constructs using emerging three-dimensional bioprinting techniques, and the generation of gene-activated scaffolds, which may accelerate the field towards its ultimate goal of clinically successful bone organ regeneration.

A physiologically relevant 3D collagen-based scaffold-neuroblastoma cell system exhibits chemosensitivity similar to orthotopic xenograft models.

3D scaffold-based in vitro cell culturing is a recent technological advancement in cancer research bridging the gap between conventional 2D culture and in vivo tumours. The main challenge in treating neuroblastoma, a paediatric cancer of the sympathetic nervous system, is to combat tumour metastasis and resistance to multiple chemotherapeutic drugs. The aim of this study was to establish a physiologically relevant 3D neuroblastoma tissue-engineered system and explore its therapeutic relevance. Two neuroblastoma cell lines, chemotherapeutic sensitive Kelly and chemotherapeutic resistant KellyCis83 were cultured in a 3D in vitro model on two collagen-based scaffolds containing either glycosaminoglycan (Coll-GAG) or nanohydroxyapatite (Coll-nHA) and compared to 2D cell culture and an orthotopic murine model. Both neuroblastoma cell lines actively infiltrated the scaffolds and proliferated displaying >100-fold increased resistance to cisplatin treatment when compared to 2D cultures, exhibiting chemosensitivity similar to orthotopic xenograft in vivo models. This model demonstrated its applicability to validate miRNA-based gene delivery. The efficacy of liposomes bearing miRNA mimics uptake and gene knockdown was similar in both 2D and 3D in vitro culturing models highlighting the proof-of-principle for the applicability of 3D collagen-based scaffolds cell system for validation of miRNA function. Collectively, this data shows the successful development and characterisation of a physiologically relevant, scaffold-based 3D tissue-engineered neuroblastoma cell model, strongly supporting its value in the evaluation of chemotherapeutics, targeted therapies and investigation of neuroblastoma pathogenesis. While neuroblastoma is the specific disease being focused upon, the platform may have multi-functionality beyond this tumour type. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Traditional 2D cell cultures do not completely capture the 3D architecture of cells and extracellular matrix contributing to a gap in our understanding of mammalian biology at the tissue level and may explain some of the discrepancies between in vitro and in vivo results. Here, we demonstrated the successful development and characterisation of a physiologically relevant, scaffold-based 3D tissue-engineered neuroblastoma cell model, strongly supporting its value in the evaluation of chemotherapeutics, targeted therapies and investigation of neuroblastoma pathogenesis. The ability to test drugs in this reproducible and controllable tissue-engineered model system will help reduce the attrition rate of the drug development process and lead to more effective and tailored therapies. Importantly, such 3D cell models help to reduce and replace animals for pre-clinical research addressing the principles of the 3Rs.

Tissue engineered extracellular matrices (ECMs) in urology: Evolution and future directions.

Autologous gastrointestinal tissue has remained the gold-standard reconstructive biomaterial in urology for >100 years. Mucus-secreting epithelium is associated with lifelong metabolic and neuromechanical complications when implanted into the urinary tract. Therefore, the availability of biocompatible tissue-engineered biomaterials such as extracellular matrix (ECM) scaffolds may provide an attractive alternative for urologists. ECMs are decellularised, biodegradable membranes that have shown promise for repairing defective urinary tract segments in vitro and in vivo by inducing a host-derived tissue remodelling response after implantation. In urology, porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) and porcine urinary bladder matrix (UBM) are commonly selected as ECMs for tissue regeneration. Both ECMs support ingrowth of native tissue and differentiation of multi-layered urothelial and smooth muscle cells layers while providing mechanical support in vivo. In their native acellular state, ECM scaffolds can repair small urinary tract defects. Larger urinary tract segments can be repaired when ECMs are manipulated by seeding them with various cell types prior to in vivo implantation. In the present review, we evaluate and summarise the clinical potential of tissue engineered ECMs in reconstructive urology with emphasis on their long-term outcomes in urological clinical trials.

An efficient, non-viral dendritic vector for gene delivery in tissue engineering.

Recent developments within the field of tissue engineering (TE) have shown that biomaterial scaffold systems can be augmented via the incorporation of gene therapeutics. The objective of this study was to assess the potential of the activated polyamidoamine dendrimer (dPAMAM) transfection reagent (SuperfectTM) as a gene delivery system to mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in both monolayer and 3D culture on collagen based scaffolds. dPAMAM-pDNA polyplexes at a mass ratio (M:R) 10:1 (dPAMAM : pDNA) (1 ug pDNA) were capable of facilitating prolonged reporter gene expression in monolayer MSCs which was superior to that facilitated using polyethylenimine (PEI)-pDNA polyplexes (2 ug pDNA). When dPAMAM-pDNA polyplexes (1 ug pDNA) were soak loaded onto a collagen-chondroitin sulphate (CS) scaffold prolonged transgene expression was facilitated which was higher than that obtained for a PEI-pDNA polyplex (2 ug pDNA) loaded scaffold. Transgene expression was dependent on the composite nature of the collagen scaffold with varying expression profiles obtained from a suite of collagen constructs including a collagen alone, collagen-CS, collagen-hydroxyapatite, collagen-nanohydroxyapatite and collagen-hyaluronic acid scaffold. Therefore, the dPAMAM vector described herein represents a biocompatible, effective gene delivery vector for TE applications which, via matching with a particular composite scaffold type, can be tailored for regeneration of various tissue defects.

Mesenchymal stem cell fate following non-viral gene transfection strongly depends on the choice of delivery vector.

Controlling the phenotype of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) through the delivery of regulatory genes is a promising strategy in tissue engineering (TE). Essential to effective gene delivery is the choice of gene carrier. Non-viral delivery vectors have been extensively used in TE, however their intrinsic effects on MSC differentiation remain poorly understood. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of three different classes of non-viral gene delivery vectors: (1) cationic polymers (polyethylenimine, PEI), (2) inorganic nanoparticles (nanohydroxyapatite, nHA) and (3) amphipathic peptides (RALA peptide) on modulating stem cell fate after reporter and therapeutic gene delivery. Despite facilitating similar reporter gene transfection efficiencies, these nanoparticle-based vectors had dramatically different effects on MSC viability, cytoskeletal morphology and differentiation. After reporter gene delivery (pGFP or pLUC), the nHA and RALA vectors supported an elongated MSC morphology, actin stress fibre formation and the development of mature focal adhesions, while cells appeared rounded and less tense following PEI transfection. These changes in MSC morphology correlated with enhanced osteogenesis following nHA and RALA transfection and adipogenesis following PEI transfection. When therapeutic genes encoding for transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGF-ß3) and/or bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2) were delivered to MSCs, nHA promoted osteogenesis in 2D culture and the development of an endochondral phenotype in 3D culture, while RALA was less osteogenic and appeared to promote a more stable hyaline cartilage-like phenotype. In contrast, PEI failed to induce robust osteogenesis or chondrogenesis of MSCs, despite effective therapeutic protein production. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the differentiation of MSCs through the application of non-viral gene delivery strategies depends not only on the gene delivered, but also on the gene carrier itself. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Nanoparticle-based non-viral gene delivery vectors have been extensively used in regenerative medicine, however their intrinsic effects on mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) differentiation remain poorly understood. This paper demonstrates that different classes of commonly used non-viral vectors are not inert and they have a strong effect on cell morphology, stress fiber formation and gene transcription in MSCs, which in turn modulates their capacity to differentiate towards osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic lineages. These results also point to the need for careful and tissue-specific selection of nanoparticle-based delivery vectors to prevent undesired phenotypic changes and off-target effects when delivering therapeutic genes to damaged or diseased tissues.

Growth plate extracellular matrix-derived scaffolds for large bone defect healing.

Limitations associated with demineralised bone matrix and other grafting materials have motivated the development of alternative strategies to enhance the repair of large bone defects. The growth plate (GP) of developing limbs contain a plethora of growth factors and matrix cues which contribute to long bone growth, suggesting that biomaterials derived from its extracellular matrix (ECM) may be uniquely suited to promoting bone regeneration. The goal of this study was to generate porous scaffolds from decellularised GP ECM and to evaluate their ability to enhance host mediated bone regeneration following their implantation into critically-sized rat cranial defects. The scaffolds were first assessed by culturing with primary human macrophages, which demonstrated that decellularisation resulted in reduced IL-1ß and IL-8 production. In vitro, GP derived scaffolds were found capable of supporting osteogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells via either an intramembranous or an endochondral pathway, demonstrating the intrinsic osteoinductivity of the biomaterial. Furthermore, upon implantation into cranial defects, GP derived scaffolds were observed to accelerate vessel in-growth, mineralisation and de novo bone formation. These results support the use of decellularised GP ECM as a scaffold for large bone defect regeneration.

Fibrin hydrogels functionalized with cartilage extracellular matrix and incorporating freshly isolated stromal cells as an injectable for cartilage regeneration.

UNLABELLED: Freshly isolated stromal cells can potentially be used as an alternative to in vitro expanded cells in regenerative medicine. Their use requires the development of bioactive hydrogels or scaffolds which provide an environment to enhance their proliferation and tissue-specific differentiation in vivo. The goal of the current study was to develop an injectable fibrin hydrogel functionalized with cartilage ECM microparticles and transforming growth factor (TGF)-ß3 as a putative therapeutic for articular cartilage regeneration. ECM microparticles were produced by cryomilling and freeze-drying porcine articular cartilage. Up to 2% (w/v) ECM could be incorporated into fibrin without detrimentally affecting its capacity to form stable hydrogels. To access the chondroinductivity of cartilage ECM, we compared chondrogenesis of infrapatellar fat pad-derived stem cells in fibrin hydrogels functionalized with either particulated ECM or control gelatin microspheres. Cartilage ECM particles could be used to control the delivery of TGF-ß3 to IFP-derived stem cells within fibrin hydrogels in vitro, and furthermore, led to higher levels of sulphated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) and collagen accumulation compared to control constructs loaded with gelatin microspheres. In vivo, freshly isolated stromal cells generated a more cartilage-like tissue within fibrin hydrogels functionalized with cartilage ECM particles compared to the control gelatin loaded constructs. These tissues stained strongly for type II collagen and contained higher levels of sGAGs. These results support the use of fibrin hydrogels functionalized with cartilage ECM components in single-stage, cell-based therapies for joint regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: An alternative to the use of in vitro expanded cells in regenerative medicine is the use of freshly isolated stromal cells, where a bioactive scaffold or hydrogel is used to provide an environment that enhances their proliferation and tissue-specific differentiation in vivo. The objective of this study was to develop an injectable fibrin hydrogel functionalized with cartilage ECM micro-particles and the growth factor TGF-ß3 as a therapeutic for articular cartilage regeneration. This study demonstrates that freshly isolated stromal cells generate cartilage tissue in vivo when incorporated into such a fibrin hydrogels functionalized with cartilage ECM particles. These findings open up new possibilities for in-theatre, single-stage, cell-based therapies for joint regeneration.

The effect of bisphosphonate treatment on the biochemical and cellular events during bone remodelling in response to microinjury stimulation.

Osteoporosis is one of the most prevalent bone diseases worldwide and is characterised by high levels of bone turnover, a marked loss in bone mass and accumulation of microdamage, which leads to an increased fracture incidence that places a huge burden on global health care systems. Bisphosphonates have been used to treat osteoporosis and have shown great success in conserving bone mass and reducing fracture incidence. In spite of the existing knowledge of the in vivo responses of bone to bisphosphonates, the cellular responses to these drugs have yet to be fully elucidated. In vitro model systems that allow the decoupling of complex highly integrated events, such as bone remodelling, provide a tool whereby these biological processes may be studied in a more simplified context. This study firstly utilised an in vitro model system of bone remodelling and comprising all three major cell types of the bone (osteocytes, osteoclasts and osteoblasts), which was representative of the bone's capacity to sense microdamage and subsequently initiate a basic multicellular unit response. Secondly, this system was used to study the effect of two commonly utilised aminobisphosphonate treatments for osteoporosis, alendronate and zoledronate. We demonstrated that microinjury to osteocyte networks being treated with bisphosphonates modulates receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand and osteoprotegerin activity, and subsequently osteoclastogenesis. Furthermore, bisphosphonates increased the osteogenic potential following microinjury. Thus, we have shown for the first time that bisphosphonates act at all three stages of bone remodelling, from microinjury to osteoclastogenesis and ultimately osteogenesis.

Staphylococcus epidermidis serine--aspartate repeat protein G (SdrG) binds to osteoblast integrin alpha V beta 3.

Staphylococcus epidermidis is the leading etiologic agent of orthopaedic implant infection. Contamination of the implanted device during insertion allows bacteria gain entry into the sterile bone environment leading to condition known as osteomyelitis. Osteomyelitis is characterised by weakened bones associated with progressive bone loss. The mechanism through which S. epidermidis interacts with bone cells to cause osteomyelitis is poorly understood. We demonstrate here that S. epidermidis can bind to osteoblasts in the absence of matrix proteins. S. epidermidis strains lacking the cell wall protein SdrG had a significantly reduced ability to bind to osteoblasts. Consistent with this, expression of SdrG in Lactococcus lactis resulted in significantly increased binding to the osteoblasts. Protein analysis identified that SdrG contains a potential integrin recognition motif. αVß3 is a major integrin expressed on osteoblasts and typically recognises RGD motifs in its ligands. Our results demonstrate that S. epidermidis binds to recombinant purified αVß3, and that a mutant lacking SdrG failed to bind. Blocking αVß3 on osteoblasts significantly reduced binding to S. epidermidis. These studies are the first to identify a mechanism through which S. epidermidis binds to osteoblasts and potentially offers a mechanism through which implant infection caused by S. epidermidis leads to osteomyelitis.

Estrogen withdrawal from osteoblasts and osteocytes causes increased mineralization and apoptosis.

Recent studies have demonstrated increased bone mineral heterogeneity following estrogen withdrawal in vivo. Such changes likely contribute to fracture risk during post-menopausal osteoporosis since tissue mineralization is correlated with bone strength and stiffness. However, the cellular mechanisms responsible for increased mineral variability have not yet been distinguished. The objective of this study is to elucidate how alterations in mineral distribution are initiated during estrogen depletion. Specifically, we tested two separate hypotheses; (1) estrogen deficiency directly alters osteoblast mineralization and (2) estrogen deficiency increases bone cell apoptosis. Osteoblast-like cells (MC3T3-E1) and osteocyte-like cells (MLO-Y4) were pretreated with or without estrogen (17ß-estradiol) for 14 days. Estrogen deficiency was subsequently induced by either withdrawing estrogen from cells or blocking estrogen receptors using an estrogen antagonist, fulvestrant (ICI 182,780). Cell number (Hoechst DNA), alkaline phosphatase activity (p-NPP), mineralization (alizarin red) and apoptosis (Caspase 3/7) were evaluated. Whether estrogen withdrawal altered apoptosis rates in the presence of an apoptosis promoting agent (etoposide) was also determined. Interestingly, estrogen withdrawal from cells accustomed to estrogen exposure caused significantly increased osteoblast mineralization and osteocyte apoptosis compared with continued estrogen treatment. In contrast, blocking estrogen receptors with fulvestrant abrogated the mineralization induced by estrogen treatment. When apoptosis was induced using etoposide, cells undergoing estrogen withdrawal increased apoptosis compared to cells with continued estrogen treatment. Recognizing the underlying mechanisms regulating bone cell mineralization and apoptosis during estrogen deficiency and their consequences is necessary to further our knowledge of osteoporosis.

Effects of ageing, prolonged estrogen deficiency and zoledronate on bone tissue mineral distribution.

The quantity and distribution of bone tissue mineral are key determinants of bone strength. Recent research revealed altered mineral distribution within sheep femora following estrogen deficiency. Rapid increases in bone remodeling occur at the onset of estrogen deficiency and abate over time. Therefore, altered tissue mineralization might be a transient characteristic of osteoporosis. Bisphosphonates reduce fracture incidence by 40-60% but increases in bone mineral density are insufficient to explain such changes. In this study the hypotheses that bone tissue mineralization is altered over prolonged estrogen depletion and bisphosphonate treatment were tested. Quantitative backscattered imaging (qBEI) was used to quantify bone mineral density distribution (BMDD) parameters (mean, FWHM) in trabeculae from the proximal femora of an ovariectomized sheep model that underwent estrogen deficiency for 31 months, an ovariectomized group administered with Zoledronic acid and age-matched controls. To assess the effects of normal ageing and prolonged estrogen deficiency, data were compared to BMDD data from sheep that were estrogen deficient for 12 months and age-matched controls. This study reports that normal ageing increases mean mineralization and mineral heterogeneity at a trabecular level. In contrast, prolonged estrogen deficiency leads to significantly decreased mean mineralization and further exacerbates increases in mineral heterogeneity. Interestingly, ZOL treatment of OVX sheep significantly reduced tissue mineral variability, both at a trabecular level and between femoral regions. Together, these findings indicate that ZOL treatment acts to reverse the increased mineral heterogeneity occurring during estrogen deficiency, which may contribute to its capacity to reduce osteoporotic fractures.

The osteogenic potential of the marine-derived multi-mineral formula aquamin is enhanced by the presence of vitamin D.

Bone degenerative diseases are on the increase globally and are often problematic to treat. This has led to a demand to identify supplements that aid bone growth and formation. Aquamin is a natural multi-mineral food supplement, derived from the red algae Lithothamnion species which contains calcium, magnesium and 72 other trace minerals. It has been previously reported to increase bone formation and mineralisation. This study aimed to investigate the 28 day in vitro osteogenic response of Aquamin supplemented with Vitamin D. The osteogenic potential of MC3T3-E1 osteoblast-like cells was analysed in standard osteogenic medium supplemented with Aquamin +/- Vitamin D3, and the controls consisted of osteogenic medium, +/- Vitamin D3. Proliferation of osteoblasts, metabolic activity and cell viability did not differ between Aquamin and the osteogenic control groups. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels and mineralisation were increased by the supplementation of Aquamin, and the addition of Vitamin D3 increased mineralisation for all groups. The combination of Aquamin and Vitamin D3 yielded a significant increase in ALP and mineralisation over Aquamin alone and the standard osteogenic control +/- Vitamin D3. This study demonstrates that Aquamin aids osteogenesis, and that its osteogenic response can be enhanced by combining Aquamin with Vitamin D3.