Plasmid-mediated virulence in Chlamydia.

Chlamydia trachomatis infection of ocular conjunctiva can lead to blindness, while infection of the female genital tract can lead to chronic pelvic pain, ectopic pregnancy, and/or infertility. Conjunctival and fallopian tube inflammation and the resulting disease sequelae are attributed to immune responses induced by chlamydial infection at these mucosal sites. The conserved chlamydial plasmid has been implicated in enhancing infection, via improved host cell entry and exit, and accelerating innate inflammatory responses that lead to tissue damage. The chlamydial plasmid encodes eight open reading frames, three of which have been associated with virulence: a secreted protein, Pgp3, and putative transcriptional regulators, Pgp4 and Pgp5. Although Pgp3 is an important plasmid-encoded virulence factor, recent studies suggest that chlamydial plasmid-mediated virulence extends beyond the expression of Pgp3. In this review, we discuss studies of genital, ocular, and gastrointestinal infection with C. trachomatis or C. muridarum that shed light on the role of the plasmid in disease development, and the potential for tissue and species-specific differences in plasmid-mediated pathogenesis. We also review evidence that plasmid-associated inflammation can be independent of bacterial burden. The functions of each of the plasmid-encoded proteins and potential molecular mechanisms for their role(s) in chlamydial virulence are discussed. Although the understanding of plasmid-associated virulence has expanded within the last decade, many questions related to how and to what extent the plasmid influences chlamydial infectivity and inflammation remain unknown, particularly with respect to human infections. Elucidating the answers to these questions could improve our understanding of how chlamydia augment infection and inflammation to cause disease.

Unique T cell signatures are associated with reduced Chlamydia trachomatis reinfection in a highly exposed cohort.

Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted infection (STI) in the United States, despite effective antibiotics. Information regarding natural immunity to CT will inform vaccine design. The objectives of this study were to determine immune cell populations and functional features associated with reduced risk of CT reinfection or endometrial CT infection. PBMCs were collected from a cohort of CT-exposed women who were tested for CT and other STIs at the cervix and endometrium (to determine ascension) and were repeatedly tested over the course of a year (to determine reinfection). Mass cytometry identified major immune populations and T cell subsets. Women with CT had increased CD4+ effector memory T cells (TEM) compared to uninfected women. Specifically, Th2, Th17, and Th17 DN CD4+ TEM were increased. Th17 and Th17 DN CD4+ central memory T cells (TCM) were increased in women who did not experience follow-up CT infection, suggesting that these cells may be important for protection. These data indicate that peripheral T cells display distinct features that correlate with natural immunity to CT and suggest that the highly plastic Th17 lineage plays a role in protection against reinfection.

A Machine Learning-Based Analytic Pipeline Applied to Clinical and Serum IgG Immunoproteome Data To Predict Chlamydia trachomatis Genital Tract Ascension and Incident Infection in Women.

We developed a reusable and open-source machine learning (ML) pipeline that can provide an analytical framework for rigorous biomarker discovery. We implemented the ML pipeline to determine the predictive potential of clinical and immunoproteome antibody data for outcomes associated with Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infection collected from 222 cis-gender females with high Ct exposure. We compared the predictive performance of 4 ML algorithms (naive Bayes, random forest, extreme gradient boosting with linear booster [xgbLinear], and k-nearest neighbors [KNN]), screened from 215 ML methods, in combination with two different feature selection strategies, Boruta and recursive feature elimination. Recursive feature elimination performed better than Boruta in this study. In prediction of Ct ascending infection, naive Bayes yielded a slightly higher median value of are under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) 0.57 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.54 to 0.59) than other methods and provided biological interpretability. For prediction of incident infection among women uninfected at enrollment, KNN performed slightly better than other algorithms, with a median AUROC of 0.61 (95% CI, 0.49 to 0.70). In contrast, xgbLinear and random forest had higher predictive performances, with median AUROC of 0.63 (95% CI, 0.58 to 0.67) and 0.62 (95% CI, 0.58 to 0.64), respectively, for women infected at enrollment. Our findings suggest that clinical factors and serum anti-Ct protein IgGs are inadequate biomarkers for ascension or incident Ct infection. Nevertheless, our analysis highlights the utility of a pipeline that searches for biomarkers and evaluates prediction performance and interpretability. IMPORTANCE Biomarker discovery to aid early diagnosis and treatment using machine learning (ML) approaches is a rapidly developing area in host-microbe studies. However, lack of reproducibility and interpretability of ML-driven biomarker analysis hinders selection of robust biomarkers that can be applied in clinical practice. We thus developed a rigorous ML analytical framework and provide recommendations for enhancing reproducibility of biomarkers. We emphasize the importance of robustness in selection of ML methods, evaluation of performance, and interpretability of biomarkers. Our ML pipeline is reusable and open-source and can be used not only to identify host-pathogen interaction biomarkers but also in microbiome studies and ecological and environmental microbiology research.

Virulence Protein Pgp3 Is Insufficient To Mediate Plasmid-Dependent Infectivity of Chlamydia trachomatis.

Chlamydia trachomatis is the most common cause of infectious blindness and sexually transmitted bacterial infection globally. C. trachomatis contains a conserved chlamydial plasmid with eight coding sequences. Plasmid-cured Chlamydia strains are attenuated and display reduced infectivity in cell culture and in vivo genital infection of female mice. Mutants that do not express the plasmid-encoded proteins Pgp3, a secreted protein with unknown function, or Pgp4, a putative regulator of pgp3 and other chromosomal loci, display an infectivity defect similar to plasmid-deficient strains. Our objective was to determine the combined and individual contributions of Pgp3 and Pgp4 to this phenotype. Deletion of pgp3 and pgp4 resulted in an infectivity defect detected by competition assay in cell culture and in mice. The pgp3 locus was placed under the control of an anhydrotetracycline-inducible promoter to examine the individual contributions of Pgp3 and Pgp4 to infectivity. Expression of pgp3 was induced 100- to 1,000-fold after anhydrotetracycline administration, regardless of the presence or absence of pgp4. However, secreted Pgp3 was not detected when pgp4 was deleted, confirming a role for Pgp4 in Pgp3 secretion. We discovered that expression of pgp3 or pgp4 alone was insufficient to restore normal infectivity, which required expression of both Pgp3 and Pgp4. These results suggest Pgp3 and Pgp4 are both required for infectivity during C. trachomatis infection. Future studies are required to determine the mechanism by which Pgp3 and Pgp4 influence chlamydial infectivity as well as the potential roles of Pgp4-regulated loci.

Genetic susceptibility loci for Chlamydia trachomatis endometrial infection influence expression of genes involved in T cell function, tryptophan metabolism and epithelial integrity.

Objectives: Identify genetic loci of enhanced susceptibility to Chlamydial trachomatis (Ct) upper genital tract infection in women. Methods: We performed an integrated analysis of DNA genotypes and blood-derived mRNA profiles from 200 Ct-exposed women to identify expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) and determine their association with endometrial chlamydial infection using a mediation test. We further evaluated the effect of a lead eQTL on the expression of CD151 by immune cells from women with genotypes associated with low and high whole blood expression of CD151, respectively. Results: We identified cis-eQTLs modulating mRNA expression of 81 genes (eGenes) associated with altered risk of ascending infection. In women with endometrial infection, eGenes involved in proinflammatory signaling were upregulated. Downregulated eGenes included genes involved in T cell functions pivotal for chlamydial control. eGenes encoding molecules linked to metabolism of tryptophan, an essential chlamydial nutrient, and formation of epithelial tight junctions were also downregulated in women with endometrial infection. A lead eSNP rs10902226 was identified regulating CD151, a tetrospanin molecule important for immune cell adhesion and migration and T cell proliferation. Further in vitro experiments showed that women with a CC genotype at rs10902226 had reduced rates of endometrial infection with increased CD151 expression in whole blood and T cells when compared to women with a GG genotype. Conclusions: We discovered genetic variants associated with altered risk for Ct ascension. A lead eSNP for CD151 is a candidate genetic marker for enhanced CD4 T cell function and reduced susceptibility.

Reduced Endometrial Ascension and Enhanced Reinfection Associated With Immunoglobulin G Antibodies to Specific Chlamydia trachomatis Proteins in Women at Risk for Chlamydia.

BACKGROUND: Previous research revealed antibodies targeting Chlamydia trachomatis elementary bodies was not associated with reduced endometrial or incident infection in C. trachomatis-exposed women. However, data on the role of C. trachomatis protein-specific antibodies in protection are limited. METHODS: A whole-proteome C. trachomatis array screening serum pools from C. trachomatis-exposed women identified 121 immunoprevalent proteins. Individual serum samples were probed using a focused array. Immunoglobulin (Ig) G antibody frequencies and endometrial or incident infection relationships were examined using Wilcoxon rank sum test. The impact of the breadth and magnitude of protein-specific IgGs on ascension and incident infection were examined using multivariable stepwise logistic regression. Complementary RNA sequencing quantified C. trachomatis gene transcripts in cervical swab samples from infected women. RESULTS: IgG to pGP3 and CT_005 were associated with reduced endometrial infection; anti-CT_443, anti-CT_486, and anti-CT_123 were associated with increased incident infection. Increased breadth of protein recognition did not however predict protection from endometrial or incident infection. Messenger RNAs for immunoprevalent C. trachomatis proteins were highly abundant in the cervix. CONCLUSIONS: Protein-specific C. trachomatis antibodies are not sufficient to protect against ascending or incident infection. However, cervical C. trachomatis gene transcript abundance positively correlates with C. trachomatis protein immunogenicity. These abundant and broadly recognized antigens are viable vaccine candidates.

Host Genetic Risk Factors for Chlamydia trachomatis-Related Infertility in Women.

BACKGROUND: Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infection ascending to the upper genital tract can cause infertility. Direct association of genetic variants as contributors is challenging because infertility may not be diagnosed until years after infection. Investigating the intermediate trait of ascension bridges this gap. METHODS: We identified infertility genome-wide association study (GWAS) loci using deoxyribonucleic acid from Ct-seropositive cisgender women in a tubal factor infertility study and Ct-infected cisgender women from a longitudinal pelvic inflammatory disease cohort with known fertility status. Deoxyribonucleic acid and blood messenger ribonucleic acid from 2 additional female cohorts with active Ct infection and known endometrial infection status were used to investigate the impact of infertility single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on Ct ascension. A statistical mediation test examined whether multiple infertility SNPs jointly influenced ascension risk by modulating expression of mediator genes. RESULTS: We identified 112 candidate infertility GWAS loci, and 31 associated with Ct ascension. The SNPs altered chlamydial ascension by modulating expression of 40 mediator genes. Mediator genes identified are involved in innate immune responses including type I interferon production, T-cell function, fibrosis, female reproductive tract health, and protein synthesis and degradation. CONCLUSIONS: We identified Ct-related infertility loci and their potential functional effects on Ct ascension.

Advances in 3D-Printed Surface-Modified Ca-Si Bioceramic Structures and Their Potential for Bone Tumor Therapy.

Bioceramics such as calcium silicate (Ca-Si), have gained a lot of interest in the biomedical field due to their strength, osteogenesis capability, mechanical stability, and biocompatibility. As such, these materials are excellent candidates to promote bone and tissue regeneration along with treating bone cancer. Bioceramic scaffolds, functionalized with appropriate materials, can achieve desirable photothermal effects, opening up a bifunctional approach to osteosarcoma treatments-simultaneously killing cancerous cells while expediting healthy bone tissue regeneration. At the same time, they can also be used as vehicles and cargo structures to deliver anticancer drugs and molecules in a targeted manner to tumorous tissue. However, the traditional synthesis routes for these bioceramic scaffolds limit the macro-, micro-, and nanostructures necessary for maximal benefits for photothermal therapy and drug delivery. Therefore, a different approach to formulate bioceramic scaffolds has emerged in the form of 3D printing, which offers a sustainable, highly reproducible, and scalable method for the production of valuable biomedical materials. Here, calcium silicate (Ca-Si) is reviewed as a novel 3D printing base material, functionalized with highly photothermal materials for osteosarcoma therapy and drug delivery platforms. Consequently, this review aims to detail advances made towards functionalizing 3D-printed Ca-Si and similar bioceramic scaffold structures as well as their resulting applications for various aspects of tumor therapy, with a focus on the external surface and internal dispersion functionalization of the scaffolds.

Nanocarrier drug resistant tumor interactions: novel approaches to fight drug resistance in cancer.

Cancer is one of the biggest healthcare concerns in our century, a disease whose treatment has become even more difficult following reports of drug-resistant tumors. When this happens, chemotherapy treatments fail or decrease in efficiency, leading to catastrophic consequences to the patient. This discovery, along with the fact that drug resistance limits the efficacy of current treatments, has led to a new wave of discovery for new methods of treatment. The use of nanomedicine has been widely studied in current years as a way to effectively fight drug resistance in cancer. Research in the area of cancer nanotechnology over the past decades has led to tremendous advancement in the synthesis of tailored nanoparticles with targeting ligands that can successfully attach to chemotherapy-resistant cancer by preferentially accumulating within the tumor region through means of active and passive targeting. Consequently, these approaches can reduce the off-target accumulation of their payload and lead to reduced cytotoxicity and better targeting. This review explores some categories of nanocarriers that have been used in the treatment of drug-resistant cancers, including polymeric, viral, lipid-based, metal-based, carbon-based, and magnetic nanocarriers, opening the door for an exciting field of discovery that holds tremendous promise in the treatment of these tumors.

Human Fallopian Tube Epithelial Cell Culture Model To Study Host Responses to Chlamydia trachomatis Infection.

Chlamydia trachomatis infection of the human fallopian tubes can lead to damaging inflammation and scarring, ultimately resulting in infertility. To study the human cellular responses to chlamydial infection, researchers have frequently used transformed cell lines that can have limited translational relevance. We developed a primary human fallopian tube epithelial cell model based on a method previously established for culture of primary human bronchial epithelial cells. After protease digestion and physical dissociation of excised fallopian tubes, epithelial cell precursors were expanded in growth factor-containing medium. Expanded cells were cryopreserved to generate a biobank of cells from multiple donors and cultured at an air-liquid interface. Culture conditions stimulated cellular differentiation into polarized mucin-secreting and multiciliated cells, recapitulating the architecture of human fallopian tube epithelium. The polarized and differentiated cells were infected with a clinical isolate of C. trachomatis, and inclusions containing chlamydial developmental forms were visualized by fluorescence and electron microscopy. Apical secretions from infected cells contained increased amounts of proteins associated with chlamydial growth and replication, including transferrin receptor protein 1, the amino acid transporters SLC3A2 and SLC1A5, and the T-cell chemoattractants CXCL10, CXCL11, and RANTES. Flow cytometry revealed that chlamydial infection induced cell surface expression of T-cell homing and activation proteins, including ICAM-1, VCAM-1, HLA class I and II, and interferon gamma receptor. This human fallopian tube epithelial cell culture model is an important tool with translational potential for studying cellular responses to Chlamydia and other sexually transmitted pathogens.

Mucosal Vaccination with UV-Inactivated Chlamydia suis in Pre-Exposed Outbred Pigs Decreases Pathogen Load and Induces CD4 T-Cell Maturation into IFN-γ+ Effector Memory Cells.

Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) infections are the most frequent bacterial sexually transmitted disease, and they can lead to ectopic pregnancy and infertility. Despite these detrimental long-term sequelae, a vaccine is not available. Success in preclinical animal studies is essential for vaccines to move to human clinical trials. Pigs are the natural host to Chlamydia suis (Cs)-a chlamydia species closely related to Ct, and are susceptible to Ct, making them a valuable animal model for Ct vaccine development. Before making it onto market, Ct vaccine candidates must show efficacy in a high-risk human population. The high prevalence of human Ct infection combined with the fact that natural infection does not result in sterilizing immunity, results in people at risk likely having been pre-exposed, and thus having some level of underlying non-protective immunity. Like human Ct, Cs is highly prevalent in outbred pigs. Therefore, the goal of this study was to model a trial in pre-exposed humans, and to determine the immunogenicity and efficacy of intranasal Cs vaccination in pre-exposed outbred pigs. The vaccine candidates consisted of UV-inactivated Cs particles in the presence or absence of an adjuvant (TriAdj). In this study, both groups of vaccinated pigs had a lower Cs burden compared to the non-vaccinated group; especially the TriAdj group induced the differentiation of CD4+ cells into tissue-trafficking CCR7- IFN-γ-producing effector memory T cells. These results indicate that Cs vaccination of pre-exposed pigs effectively boosts a non-protective immune response induced by natural infection; moreover, they suggest that a similar approach could be applied to human vaccine trials.

Cervical Cytokines Associated With Chlamydia trachomatis Susceptibility and Protection.

BACKGROUND: Chlamydia trachomatis can cause reproductive morbidities after ascending to the upper genital tract of women, and repeated infection can lead to worse disease. Data related to protective immune responses at the cervical mucosa that could limit chlamydial infection to the cervix and/or prevent reinfection inform vaccine approaches and biomarkers of risk. METHODS: We measured 48 cytokines in cervical secretions from women having chlamydial cervical infection alone (n = 92) or both cervical and endometrial infection (n = 68). Univariable regression identified cytokines associated with differential odds of endometrial infection and reinfection risk, and multivariable stepwise regression identified cytokine ratios associated with differential risk. RESULTS: Elevated interleukin (IL) 15/CXCL10 (odds ratio [OR], 0.55 [95% confidence interval {CI}, .37-.78]), IL-16/tumor necrosis factor-α (OR, 0.66 [95% CI, .45-.93]), and CXCL14/IL-17A (OR, 0.73 [95% CI, .54-.97]) cytokine ratios were significantly (P ≤ .05) associated with decreased odds of endometrial infection. A higher Flt-3L/IL-14 ratio was significantly (P = .001) associated with a decreased risk of reinfection (hazard ratio, 0.71 [95% CI, .58-.88]). CONCLUSIONS: Cytokines involved in humoral, type I interferon, and T-helper (Th) 17 responses were associated with susceptibility to C. trachomatis, whereas cytokines involved in Th1 polarization, recruitment, and activation were associated with protection against ascension and reinfection.

Simultaneous profiling of sexually transmitted bacterial pathogens, microbiome, and concordant host response in cervical samples using whole transcriptome sequencing analysis.

Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is a female upper genital tract inflammatory disorder that arises after sexually transmitted bacterial infections (STI). Factors modulating risk for reproductive sequelae include co-infection, microbiota, host genetics and physiology. In a pilot study of cervical samples obtained from women at high risk for STIs, we examined the potential for unbiased characterization of host, pathogen and microbiome interactions using whole transcriptome sequencing analysis of ribosomal RNA-depleted total RNAs (Total RNA-Seq). Only samples from women with STI infection contained pathogen-specific sequences (3 to 38% transcriptome coverage). Simultaneously, we identified and quantified their active microbial communities. After integration with host-derived reads from the same data, we detected clustering of host transcriptional profiles that reflected microbiome differences and STI infection. Together, our study suggests that total RNA profiling will advance understanding of the interplay of pathogen, host and microbiota during natural infection and may reveal novel, outcome-relevant biomarkers.

Anti-chlamydia IgG and IgA are insufficient to prevent endometrial chlamydia infection in women, and increased anti-chlamydia IgG is associated with enhanced risk for incident infection.

PROBLEM: Chlamydia infections in women can ascend to the upper genital tract, and repeated infections are common, placing women at risk for sequelae. The protective role of anti-chlamydia antibodies to surface exposed antigens in ascending and incident infection is unclear. METHOD OF STUDY: A whole-bacterial ELISA was used to quantify chlamydia-specific IgG and IgA in serum and cervical secretions of 151 high-risk women followed longitudinally. Correlations were determined between antibody and cervical burden, and causal mediation analysis investigated the effect of antibody on ascension. We examined the relationship of antibody to incident infection using the marginal Cox model. RESULTS: Serum and cervical anti-chlamydia IgG and cervical IgA levels correlated inversely with cervical burden. While lower burden was associated with reduced ascension, causal mediation analysis revealed that the indirect effects of antibody mediated through reductions in bacterial burden were insufficient to prevent ascension. Analysis of women uninfected at enrollment revealed that serum and cervical anti-chlamydia IgG were associated with increased risk of incident infection; hazard ratio increased 3.6-fold (95% CI, 1.3-10.3), and 22.6-fold (95% CI, 3.1-165.2) with each unit of serum and cervical IgG, respectively. CONCLUSION: Although anti-chlamydia IgG and IgA correlated with reduced cervical chlamydia burden, they failed to prevent ascension and increased levels of anti-chlamydia IgG were associated with increased risk for incident infection.

Gene Expression Signatures Can Aid Diagnosis of Sexually Transmitted Infection-Induced Endometritis in Women.

Sexually transmitted infection (STI) of the upper reproductive tract can result in inflammation and infertility. A biomarker of STI-induced upper tract inflammation would be significant as many women are asymptomatic and delayed treatment increases risk of sequelae. Blood mRNA from 111 women from three cohorts was profiled using microarray. Unsupervised analysis revealed a transcriptional profile that distinguished 9 cases of STI-induced endometritis from 18 with cervical STI or uninfected controls. Using a hybrid feature selection algorithm we identified 21 genes that yielded maximal classification accuracy within our training dataset. Predictive accuracy was evaluated using an independent testing dataset of 5 cases and 10 controls. Sensitivity was evaluated in a separate test set of 12 women with asymptomatic STI-induced endometritis in whom cervical burden was determined by PCR; and specificity in an additional test set of 15 uninfected women with pelvic pain due to unknown cause. Disease module preservation was assessed in 42 women with a clinical diagnosis of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID). We also tested the ability of the biomarker to discriminate STI-induced endometritis from other diseases. The biomarker was 86.7% (13/15) accurate in correctly distinguishing cases from controls in the testing dataset. Sensitivity was 83.3% (5/6) in women with high cervical Chlamydia trachomatis burden and asymptomatic endometritis, but 0% (0/6) in women with low burden. Specificity in patients with non-STI-induced pelvic pain was 86.7% (13/15). Disease modules were preserved in all 8 biomarker predicted cases. The 21-gene biomarker was highly discriminatory for systemic infections, lupus, and appendicitis, but wrongly predicted tuberculosis as STI-induced endometritis in 52.4%. A 21-gene biomarker can identify asymptomatic women with STI-induced endometritis that places them at risk for chronic disease development and discriminate STI-induced endometritis from non-STI pelvic pain and other diseases.

Discovery of Human-Specific Immunodominant Chlamydia trachomatis B Cell Epitopes.

Chlamydia species-specific serology is compromised by cross-reactivity of the gold standard microimmunofluorescence (MIF) or commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). This study was conducted to discover novel C. trachomatis-specific peptide antigens that were recognized only by the antibody response of the natural human host. We evaluated a library of 271 peptide antigens from immunodominant C. trachomatis proteins by reactivity with 125 C. trachomatis antibody-positive sera from women with PCR-confirmed C. trachomatis infection and 17 C. trachomatis antibody-negative sera from low-risk women never diagnosed with C. trachomatis infection. These C. trachomatis peptide antigens had been predicted in silico to contain B cell epitopes but had been nonreactive with mouse hyperimmune sera against C. trachomatis We discovered 38 novel human host-dependent antigens from 20 immunodominant C. trachomatis proteins (PmpD, IncE, IncG, CT529, CT618, CT442, TarP, CT143, CT813, CT795, CT223, PmpC, CT875, CT579, LcrE, IncA, CT226, CT694, Hsp60, and pGP3). Using these human sera, we also confirmed 10 C. trachomatis B cell epitopes from 6 immunodominant C. trachomatis proteins (OmpA, PmpD, IncE, IncG, CT529, and CT618) as host species-independent epitopes that had been previously identified by their reactivity with mouse hyperimmune sera against C. trachomatis ELISA reactivities against these peptides correlated strongly with the C. trachomatis microimmunofluorescence (MIF) text results (Pearson's correlation coefficient [R] = 0.80; P < 10-6). These C. trachomatis peptide antigens do not cross-react with antibodies against other Chlamydia species and are therefore suitable for species-specific detection of antibodies against C. trachomatis This study identified an extended set of peptide antigens for simple C. trachomatis-specific ELISA serology.IMPORTANCE Current serological assays for species-specific detection of anti-Chlamydia species antibodies suffer from well-known shortcomings in specificity and ease of use. Due to the high prevalences of both anti-C. trachomatis and anti-C. pneumoniae antibodies in human populations, species-specific serology is unreliable. Therefore, novel specific and simple assays for chlamydial serology are urgently needed. Conventional antigens are problematic due to extensive cross-reactivity within Chlamydia spp. Using accurate B cell epitope prediction and a robust peptide ELISA methodology developed in our laboratory, we identified immunodominant C. trachomatis B cell epitopes by screening performed with sera from C. trachomatis-infected women. We discovered 38 novel human host-dependent antigens from 20 immunodominant C. trachomatis proteins, in addition to confirming 10 host-independent mouse serum peptide antigens that had been identified previously. This extended set of highly specific C. trachomatis peptide antigens can be used in simple ELISA or multiplexed microarray formats and will provide high specificity and sensitivity to human C. trachomatis serodiagnosis.

Comprehensive Molecular Serology of Human Chlamydia trachomatis Infections by Peptide Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays.

Sensitive species-specific detection of anti-Chlamydia trachomatis antibodies is compromised by cross-reactivity of the C. trachomatis antigens used in standard microimmunofluorescence (MIF) testing and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Previously, we discovered 48 strongly reactive C. trachomatis-specific B cell epitope peptides from 21 immunodominant proteins. Here we comprehensively evaluated the 11 top-ranked C. trachomatis-specific peptide antigens from 8 proteins for use in C. trachomatis serology. Sera from 125 women with nucleic acid amplification test (NAAT)-confirmed active C. trachomatis infection and from 49 healthy women with a low risk of C. trachomatis infection were used as anti-C. trachomatis antibody-positive and -negative sera. Results obtained for detection of IgG1, IgG3, and IgA1 antibodies against the 11 C. trachomatis peptide antigens were compared to results from 4 commercial anti-C. trachomatis IgG ELISAs. Using composite reference standards (CRS) of all assays for anti-C. trachomatis antibody status, commercial ELISAs detected antibodies in antibody-positive women with sensitivities of 51.5% to 64.8%. In contrast, a combination of the results of all 11 peptides detected IgG (IgG1 and IgG3) antibodies with 91.8% sensitivity, and a labor-saving combination of the 5 optimal peptides still detected antibodies in antibody-positive women with 86.5% sensitivity (all at 98% specificity). The superior performance of the combined peptide ELISAs was confirmed by area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC-AUC), likelihood ratio, and predictive value analyses. The higher sensitivity of the peptide assays results from using multiple B cell epitopes of several C. trachomatis immunodominant proteins, including OmpA, compared to exclusively using the OmpA antigens used in commercial ELISAs. Thus, ELISAs with combined use of synthetic peptide antigens for C. trachomatis antibody detection have the advantage of simultaneous high sensitivity and high specificity.IMPORTANCE For detection of anti-Chlamydia trachomatis antibodies by serological assays, use of classical whole-organism chlamydial antigens results in high cross-reactivity. These antigens bind mainly antibodies against the major outer membrane protein (OmpA) and bind antibodies against other immunodominant non-OmpA proteins to a lesser extent, resulting in poor assay sensitivity. The specificity of C. trachomatis serology is also compromised by the high prevalence of cross-reactive anti-C. pneumoniae antibodies in human populations. We previously identified 48 highly specific C. trachomatis B cell epitope peptide antigens of 21 immunodominant proteins. This study validated peptide antigen-based novel ELISAs that provide highly specific and sensitive detection of anti-C. trachomatis antibodies. Compared to four commercial ELISAs that achieved only poor sensitivities (51.5% to 64.8%), the combined signals of 5 to 11 peptides provided high sensitivity (86.5% to 91.8%) at the same 98% specificity. Thus, by using multiple peptide antigens of immunodominant proteins, we created simple ELISAs with specificity and sensitivity superior to standard C. trachomatis serodiagnosis.

T Cell-Independent Gamma Interferon and B Cells Cooperate To Prevent Mortality Associated with Disseminated Chlamydia muridarum Genital Tract Infection.

CD4 T cells and antibody are required for optimal acquired immunity to Chlamydia muridarum genital tract infection, and T cell-mediated gamma interferon (IFN-γ) production is necessary to clear infection in the absence of humoral immunity. However, the role of T cell-independent immune responses during primary infection remains unclear. We investigated this question by inoculating wild-type and immune-deficient mice with C. muridarum CM001, a clonal isolate capable of enhanced extragenital replication. Genital inoculation of wild-type mice resulted in transient dissemination to the lungs and spleen that then was rapidly cleared from these organs. However, CM001 genital infection proved lethal for STAT1-/- and IFNG-/- mice, in which IFN-γ signaling was absent, and for Rag1-/- mice, which lacked T and B cells and in which innate IFN-γ signaling was retained. In contrast, B cell-deficient muMT mice, which can generate a Th1 response, and T cell-deficient mice with intact B cell and innate IFN-γ signaling survived. These data collectively indicate that IFN-γ prevents lethal CM001 dissemination in the absence of T cells and suggests a B cell corequirement. Adoptive transfer of convalescent-phase immune serum but not naive IgM to Rag1-/- mice infected with CM001 significantly increased the survival time, while transfer of naive B cells completely rescued Rag1-/- mice from CM001 lethality. Protection was associated with a significant reduction in the lung chlamydial burden of genitally infected mice. These data reveal an important cooperation between T cell-independent B cell responses and innate IFN-γ in chlamydial host defense and suggest that interactions between T cell-independent antibody and IFN-γ are essential for limiting extragenital dissemination.

Discovery of Blood Transcriptional Endotypes in Women with Pelvic Inflammatory Disease.

Sexually transmitted infections with Chlamydia trachomatis and/or Neisseria gonorrhoeae and rates of pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) in women continue to rise, with reinfection being common because of poor adaptive immunity. Diagnosis remains imprecise, and pathogenesis data are derived primarily from monoinfection of mice with C. trachomatis or N. gonorrhoeae By comparing blood mRNA responses of women with C. trachomatis- and/or N. gonorrhoeae-induced PID and histologic endometritis with those from women with C. trachomatis and/or N. gonorrhoeae infection limited to their cervix and asymptomatic uninfected women determined via microarray, we discovered important pathogenic mechanisms in PID and response differences that provide a pathway to biomarker discovery. Women with N. gonorrhoeae- and/or C. trachomatis-induced PID exhibit overexpression of myeloid cell genes and suppression of protein synthesis, mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, and T cell-specific genes. Coinfected women exhibited the greatest activation of cell death pathways and suppression of responses essential for adaptive immunity. Women solely infected with C. trachomatis expressed elevated levels of type I and type II IFN genes, and enhanced type I IFN-induced chemokines in cervical secretions were associated with ascension of C. trachomatis to the endometrium. Blood microarrays reveal discrete pathobiological endotypes in women with PID that are driven by pathogen invasion of the upper genital tract.

Risk factors for Mycoplasma genitalium endometritis and incident infection: a secondary data analysis of the T cell Response Against Chlamydia (TRAC) Study.

OBJECTIVE: Assess risk factors for incident and endometrial Mycoplasma genitalium infection and determine if M. genitalium is associated with histological endometritis, an indicator of pelvic inflammatory disease. METHODS: This study was a secondary data analysis within the T cell Response Against Chlamydia (TRAC) Study, a prospective evaluation of 246 women with or at risk for Chlamydia trachomatis from urban outpatient clinics, who were followed quarterly for 12 months. Risk factors for incident M. genitalium infection were determined by Cox regression. Relative risks were estimated by Poisson regression with robust error measurements for models examining the association between M. genitalium and endometritis (histological evidence of plasma cells in endometrial stroma and neutrophils in the endometrial epithelium) and for models examining risk factors for detection of endometrial M. genitalium infection. RESULTS: M. genitalium prevalence was 16.7%, incidence was 25.3 per 100 person-years and 23% had repeated positive tests. Black race (non-black HRadj 0.4, 95% CI 0.2 to 0.9), less education (HRadj 2.4, 95% CI 1.2 to 5.1) and a new sexual partner (HRadj 3.1, 95% CI 1.7 to 5.4) were associated with incident M. genitalium. M. genitalium was associated with endometritis (RRadj 2.0, 95% CI 1.1 to 3.7). Trichomonas vaginalis (RRadj 2.0, 95% CI 1.2 to 3.4) and endometrial C. trachomatis (RRadj 1.7, 95% CI 1.1 to 2.8) were associated with endometrial M. genitalium. CONCLUSIONS: M. genitalium is prevalent in women at high risk for C. trachomatis, persists over multiple follow-up visits and is associated with histological endometritis. Studies are needed to determine if screening for M. genitalium will improve reproductive outcomes.