Blameworthy Suspects and "Real Rape": Assessing the Effects of Rape Culture-Specific Suspect Culpability Factors on the Police Decision to Arrest.

Police are considered "gatekeepers" of the criminal-legal system because their decisions significantly impact case outcomes. Using rape culture as our theoretical framework, we examine rape culture-specific factors that influence police arrest decisions in sexual assault cases reported to Los Angeles police. Importantly, extant research using this approach has overwhelmingly focused on indicators of "genuine victims," and few studies have assessed rape culture-specific indicators of suspect culpability in sexual assault case processing. The present study addresses this gap. Findings indicate that arrest decisions are motivated by rape culture-specific indicators of suspect culpability and "real rape." Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

To Report or Not to Report? A Focal Concerns Analysis of Victim Reporting Decisions Following Victimization.

Sexual assault (SA) decision-making literature primarily focuses on criminal-legal actors and often overlooks victim decision making. This relative dearth in research is problematic, as victims are principal gatekeepers of the criminal-legal process who influence whether perpetrators are arrested and prosecuted. Subsequent victim support is also contingent on the reporting decision. Overall, this body of research would benefit from a better understanding of how victims activate and participate with the criminal-legal system and the potential impact of these decisions on criminal-legal processes. Moreover, victim decision making is often situated in a theoretical analyses. Victim decision making is complex and should be studied within a criminological decision-making framework. Therefore, the current study relies on National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) data and applies a focal concerns perspective (FCP), informed by rape culture concepts, to examine why victims of sexual violence may or may not choose to report to legal authorities. The current study offers initial support for the application of FCP to victim reporting decisions. We found that victims consider each of the focal concerns (FC). Victims were more likely to report when offenders threatened them with harm (i.e., suspect blameworthiness), when the offense occurred in a private location (i.e., protection of the community), and when they sought help from victim support agencies or medical treatment (i.e., practical considerations). Additionally, we found that Black victims were more likely to report than other racial-ethnic groups (i.e., perceptual shorthand). These findings highlight a nexus between reporting to police and help-seeking via support agencies. Importantly, the results emphasize the importance for police to implement cultural competence and antiracist training to better support Black victims.

Differences in Nonresponse Bias and Victimization Reports Across Self-Administered Web-Based and Paper-and-Pencil Versions of a Campus Climate Survey.

Using a standardized campus climate survey that was disseminated across three modes of administration (N = 5,137), this study assesses the nonresponse bias of two web-based versions to a self-administered paper-and-pencil version conducted at a Southeastern 4-year university. Significant differences emerged across all three modes of administration and victimization measures (bullying, sexual assault, rape, emotional abuse, and intimate partner violence [IPV]). Respondents were more likely to report victimization in the web-based surveys administered to online-only classes and via mass email compared to the paper survey. Policy implications, especially as it relates to survey administration, are discussed.

"Most [False Reports] Involve Teens": Officer Attitudes Toward Teenage Sexual Assault Complainants-A Qualitative Analysis.

Scholars, advocates, and victims have repeatedly criticized the police treatment of sexual assault (SA) complainants. Apathetic attitudes and hostile behavior on the part of the police have likely resulted from socialization into a culture that condones the use of force and violence and blames SA victims for their victimization. Using data from in-depth semistructured interviews with 52 Los Angeles Police Department sex crimes detectives, we examine officer attitudes toward teenage complainants of SA. Notably, almost three fourths of the respondents (n = 38; 73%) mentioned that teenagers lie about SA. Practical implications, theoretical advancements, and directions for future research are discussed.

The Sexual Stratification Hypothesis: Is the Decision to Arrest Influenced by the Victim/Suspect Racial/Ethnic Dyad?

The sexual stratification hypothesis suggests that criminal justice responses to sexual victimization will differ depending on the victim/suspect racial/ethnic dyad. Previous research examining the sexual stratification hypothesis has primarily focused on court processes, and the small body of literature examining arrest decisions is dated. There remains substantial opportunity for testing the sexual stratification hypothesis at response stages apart from the court level (i.e., arrest). Using quantitative data on 655 sexual assault complaints that were reported to the Los Angeles County Sherriff's Department (LASD) and the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) in 2008, this study examines the effect of the victim/suspect racial/ethnic dyad on the decision to arrest. Findings suggest that police consider the victim/suspect racial/ethnic dyad when making arrest decisions. In addition, victim characteristics, strength of evidence indicators, and measures of case factors predict the police decision to make an arrest.

The effects of individual- and national-level factors on attitudes toward child maltreatment.

Knowledge is lacking regarding the extent to which national norms and policies designed to protect minors influence individual attitudes toward child maltreatment. Relying on the tenets of cultural sociology, we examine whether the orientation of a nation influences individual attitudes toward child maltreatment. Specifically, nations with greater economic and political stability tolerate more self-expressive values, focusing on individual autonomy and enhancing quality of life. Conversely, nations with a survivalist orientation, often characterized by greater economic uncertainty, are less supportive of behaviors that may result in further instability. The current study builds on extant research by investigating the effects of national norms and policies and individual-level attitudes and characteristics on individual attitudes toward child maltreatment (N = 66,391) in 53 developing and developed nations. We analyze data from the World Values Survey using Hierarchical Generalized Linear Modeling. Overall, countries with a greater survivalist orientation appear less tolerant of child maltreatment. Moreover, greater support for violence in general at both the national- and individual-level are associated with more supportive attitudes toward child maltreatment. Policy implications and legislative reform are discussed.

When the Perpetrator Is a Partner: Arrest and Charging Decisions in Intimate Partner Sexual Assault Cases-A Focal Concerns Analysis.

Law enforcement officials and prosecutors have been called "gatekeepers" of the criminal justice system, as their discretionary decisions determine case outcomes. Using the focal concerns perspective as our theoretical foundation, we explore the factors that influence arrest and charging decisions in intimate partner sexual assaults (IPSA) reported to Los Angeles law enforcement in 2008. Quantitative findings are supplemented with qualitative examples from Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) detectives interviewed in 2010 and charge evaluation sheets from complaints referred to Los Angeles prosecution in 2008. Attempting to expand its theoretical relevance, we develop an alternative conceptualization and operationalization of the focal concerns perspective that is more appropriate to IPSA cases. Findings suggest that arrest decisions are motivated by suspect blameworthiness, community protection, and practical constraints and organizational consequences. In addition, charging decisions are influenced by community protection and practical constraints. Extralegal factors did not influence decision making. Directions for future research are discussed.

Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender: Reframing Knowledge Surrounding Barriers to Social Services Among Latina Intimate Partner Violence Victims.

Using an intersectional framework, this article discusses the barriers to social services that Latina victims of intimate partner violence encounter, a drastically underdeveloped area of theorizing. We argue that placing Latinas at the center of analysis will facilitate empirical knowledge, which is necessary because mainstream inquiry has historically ignored their interests. First, we discuss cultural barriers through the lenses of gender, race, and ethnicity. Second, we describe socioeconomic barriers in conjunction with gender, race, and ethnicity. Third, we examine legal barriers along with the representation of gender, race, and ethnicity. Finally, we suggest directions for research and recommendations for service providers.

Prosecuting Intimate Partner Sexual Assault: Legal and Extra-Legal Factors That Influence Charging Decisions.

Prosecutors play a crucial role in determining whether persons who are accused of intimate partner sexual assault (IPSA) will be sanctioned by the criminal justice system. Prosecutors have unconditional discretion at the initial charging stage because a case rejection decision is typically immune to review. Using qualitative data from 47 IPSA complaints that were referred to Los Angeles County or City prosecution in 2008, this study examines the factors that influence charging decisions. Findings suggest that prosecutors consider both legal and extralegal factors when making charging decisions and that various cultural, legal, and rape myths surrounding IPSA influence these decisions.

Condom use during sexual assault.

This study examines questions about forced unprotected sex. Study objectives include assessing the prevalence of condom use in sexual assault and improving our understanding of the correlates of condom use in sexual assault. We analyze 841 sexual assault complaints reported to three law enforcement agencies. Descriptive data are used to assess the prevalence of condom use in sexual assault and to examine the contextual factors associated with condom use in sexual assault. We conduct logistic regression analysis to examine motivations for condom use during sexual assault. Condom use prevalence rates across the sites range from 11.7% to 15.6%. Few differences exist across jurisdictions regarding the correlates of condom use. Condom use during sexual assault appears to be motivated by three contextual factors. Younger suspects and suspects who use a weapon during assaults are more likely to use a condom. The suspect's use of alcohol is negatively related to condom use. The low rates of condom use found in this study, coupled with the dangers of unprotected sexual contact, suggest that public health efforts must address the needs of victims of sexual assault more carefully.