Using the Women Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI) to Examine Linkages between Women Smallholder Livestock Farmers' Empowerment and Access to Livestock Vaccines in Machakos County of Kenya: Insights and Critiques.

Livestock diseases are a major barrier to productivity for both male and female livestock keepers in Africa. In Kenya, two of the most devastating livestock diseases are Newcastle Disease (ND) in poultry and Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) in goats. Female livestock keepers tend to own more small ruminants (goats, sheep, etc.) and poultry and their livelihoods are adversely affected if their herds are not vaccinated against these diseases. Livestock farming has gender specific challenges and opportunities, with implications for the empowerment of women smallholder farmers, their household well-being, food security, and livelihoods. There is a need to estimate the level to which women benefit personally, socially, and economically from keeping livestock, yet there are very few studies that can measure if livestock production does in fact empower women smallholder livestock farmers. This study was done to examine linkages between women's empowerment and access and control over livestock products and vaccines. The Women Empowerment in Livestock Index (WELI) tool, which was customized to include questions on livestock vaccine access, was used to capture baseline data on empowerment scores for women in Machakos county, Kenya, prior to implementation of animal health and vaccine test models. In total, 400 participants were surveyed in two wards of Machakos County, Kola and Kalama, which were purposively selected. Women's empowerment was mapped to three domains (3DE): intrinsic agency (power within), instrumental agency (power to), and collective agency (power with) measured against adequacy in 13 indicators. Our results indicate that the household structure (female headed or dual headed household), age of respondents and number of members in a household influence the adequacy score. Work balance was the most significant negative contributor to women's disempowerment. Women contributed the most to livestock productive activities and attained adequacy in this area compared to men, directly impacting the WELI score. Women smallholder livestock farmers report low CCPP and ND vaccination rates, minimal knowledge on livestock diseases, a lack of access to cold chain storage and rarely visited veterinarians. The WELI score was 0.81 indicating a high level of empowerment for women in this community compared to men leading us to conclude that the overall WELI score was not an accurate indicator of women's empowerment in Machakos County. However, the decomposability of the index allows us to disaggregate the drivers of change and to examine how individual indicators contribute to disempowerment.

Gendered Barriers and Opportunities for Women Smallholder Farmers in the Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia Vaccine Value Chain in Kenya.

Most rural women smallholder farmers in Kenya generate income from the sale of small ruminant animals. However, diseases such as Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP) prevent them from optimizing earnings. A crucial aspect for the control of CCPP is vaccination. In Kenya, CCPP vaccines are distributed through a government delivery mechanism. This study examines gaps and barriers that prevent women smallholder farmers from accessing CCPP vaccines. Qualitative data collection tools used were focus groups discussions, focus meals, jar voices and key informant interviews. Using outcome mapping (OM) methodology, critical partners and stakeholders in the CCPP vaccine value chain (CCPP-VVC) were identified to be the manufacturers, importers, distributors, agrovets, public and private veterinarians, local leaders, and farmers. Respondents highlighted the barriers to be limited access to vaccines due to cold chain problems, inadequate and late delivery of services, lack of information and training on vaccines, and financial constraints. Identified opportunities that can support women's engagement in the CCPP-VVC are the Kenya Governments two-third gender rule, which requires that not more than two thirds of the members of elective or appointive bodies shall be of the same gender, and positive community perception of female veterinarians. We conclude that more resources and training should be made available to women farmers, and that gender perspectives on policy development related to livestock production and disease prevention are urgently needed to improve livestock productivity and increase agency for women.

Morphometric and stereological methods for quantifying the coarse structural parameters of the ruminal tissues in sheep.

In ruminants, the rumen is the largest and most significant fore-stomach. Stereological analysis of important structural parameters that may be used to assess the functional capacity of the rumen is lacking. In the current investigation, five rams were used to demonstrate the methods for quantifying salient structural parameters related to rumen function. The sheep were euthanized with 20% sodium pentobarbital intravenously, the rumen was dissected out and divided into the various sacs for gross examination, and fixation by total immersion in 10% formalin. Macroscopic ruminal surface area was estimated using the point-associated area method. Volumes of the ruminal tissues were estimated by the volume displacement method, while volume densities of the components of the ruminal wall were estimated by point counting methods. Tissue blocks for histology were obtained by systematic random sampling and processed to obtain vertical sections for surface area and volume estimations. Papillary densities and numbers were estimated from horizontal sections. The volume of ruminal tissue was 536.54 ± 80.52 cm3, the macroscopic surface area was 1091 ± 115.75 cm2 with a papillary packing density of 84.64 ± 10.99 cm-2. Average absolute surface area was 4726.74 ± 628.56 cm2. The total number of ruminal papillae per rumen was 92,884.91 ± 6216.46. The methods documented here provide the possibility of doing a detailed stereological analysis of ruminal tissue in different experimental or even pathological conditions.

Cytotoxic activity of medicinal plants of the Kakamega County (Kenya) against drug-sensitive and multidrug-resistant cancer cells.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The geographical location of Kakamega County proximal to the Kakamega Rain Forest in Kenya and its rich flora represents an interesting resource of traditional medicinal plants. The medicinal plants in the present study are traditionally used to treat cancer in Kakamega County as recorded in published literature. AIM OF THE STUDY: Due to multidrug resistance (MDR) and severe side effects of currently used drugs in clinical oncology, new candidate compounds are urgently required to improve treatment outcome. The present study explored the in vitro cytotoxic potential of 34 organic and 19 aqueous extracts of Kakamega medicinal plants towards sensitive and multidrug-resistant cancer cell lines. METHODS AND RESULTS: The cytotoxicity was determined using the resazurin assay. Eight organic and two aqueous plant extracts inhibited the growth of CCRF-CEM leukemia cells by more than 50%. The organic extracts were Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex poir (6.6% of untreated control), Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman (19.4%), Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A. Rich (38.6%), Phyllanthus fischeri Pax (40.7%), Shirakiopsis elliptica (Hochst.) Esser Synonym: Sapium ellipticum (Hochst. kraus) Pax (41.8%), Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill (45.4%) and Futumia africana Benth. (45.8%) and Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze (48%). The aqueous extracts were Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill (31.3%) and Shirakiopsis elliptica (Hochst.) Esser Synonym: Sapium ellipticum (Hochst. Kraus) Pax (48.2%). In addition to P-glycoprotein-expressing tumor cells, we also investigated other mechanisms of drug resistance, i.e. BCRP- or EGFR-transfected and TP53-knockout tumor cells. Some extracts also showed considerable cytotoxic activity against these drug-resistant cell lines. As demonstrated for selected examples, some extracts exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity towards cancer cells, if applied in combination with other extracts. DISCUSSION: The panel of medicinal plants used in the Kakamega County for cancer treatment revealed indeed cytotoxicity to various extent towards cancer cells in vitro. Hence, our results may at least in part substantiate the traditional use of these compounds to treat cancer. Even more interesting, several extracts inhibited otherwise drug-resistant tumor cell lines with similar or even better efficacy than their drug-sensitive counterparts. This provides an attractive perspective for further exploration of their anticancer potential to combat drug resistance of refractory tumors.

Immunohistochemical localization of anterior pituitary cell types of vervet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops) following sub-chronic cathinone exposure.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Khat (Catha edulis) contains cathinone, an active principal that is customarily used as a psychostimulant that wards off fatigue and to some extent used as an aphrodisiac. AIM OF STUDY: To investigate effects of escalating doses of cathinone on hormone expression by different anterior pituitary cell types using specific antibodies. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Eleven vervet monkeys (6 males and 5 females) divided into tests (n=9) and controls (n=2) were used. Animals were allocated as group I (saline controls), group II (0.8 mg/kg), group III (3.2 mg/kg) and group IV (6.4 mg/kg) of cathinone. All treatments were via oral route at alternate days of each week. At the end of 4-month treatment phase, GnRH agonist (ZOLADEX) was administered to group II (low dose) and group IV (high dose) alongside cathinone for 2 additional weeks. RESULTS: High cathinone dose at long-term exposure caused proliferation of gonadotrophs but decrease in lactotrophs and corticotrophs in anterior pituitary sections of animals while effect of low dose on these cells was insignificant. Subsequent GnRH agonist co-treatment with low and high cathinone doses enhanced gonadotroph proliferation but no change on decline of lactotrophs and corticotrophs. CONCLUSION: We believe that there was a possible potentiation of cathinone on pituitary hormone synthesis thereby influencing reproductive function. Suppression of corticotrophic and lactotrophic functions suggest lowering of stress levels and modulation of reproductive function based on dose level and chronicity of exposure. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that cathinone interferes with pituitary cell integrity and consequently target organs, but further studies are required to address the precise mechanism underlying this phenomenon.

Dose-response inhibitory effects of purified cathinone from khat (Catha edulis) on cortisol and prolactin release in vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops).

This study reports acute and sub-chronic effects of cathinone on hormonal alterations in single-caged vervet monkeys. Fourteen adult vervet monkeys were used, 12 of which were treated and 2 controls. Pre-treatment phase of 1 month aimed at establishing baseline levels of hormones while treatment phase of 4 months considered the dose- and time-response effects of cathinone on serum cortisol and prolactin levels. Test animals were allocated four groups of three animals each and administered 0.8, 1.6, 3.2 and 6.4 mg/kg body weight of cathinone orally while controls were administered normal saline. Treatment was done at alternate days of each week. Serum prolactin and cortisol immunoassays were done. Hormonal data was analysed by repeated measures ANCOVA. Results indicate a dose [F (4, 8) = 218, P < 0.001] and time [F (18, 142) = 21.7, P < 0.001] dependent effect of cathinone on cortisol levels with a significant dose by week interaction [F (71, 142) = 4.86, P < 0.001]. Similarly, there was a decrease in serum prolactin [F (4, 8) = 267, P < 0.001] with escalating doses of cathinone with a significant dose x week interaction [F (59, 118) = 13.03, P < 0.001]. The findings demonstrate that at high doses and long-term exposure, cathinone causes hormonal alterations probably via changes in hypothalamo-hypophyseo-adrenocortical and gonadal axes integrity.

Acute and sub-chronic effects of purified cathinone from khat (Catha edulis) on behavioural profiles in vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops).

We investigated the cumulative effects of cathinone on behavioural alterations in single-caged vervet monkeys. Fourteen adult vervets were divided into tests (12 animals) and controls (2 animals), and exposed to escalating doses of cathinone at alternate days of each week for 4 months in presence and absence of cage enrichment. One month of pre-treatment phase served to establish baseline values. Composite behavioural scores of aggression, anxiety, abnormal responses, withdrawal and appetite loss were done. A series of repeated measures analysis of variances were conducted to examine the extent to which cathinone administration was associated with patterns of changes in behavioural data. Results indicate a dose-dependent effect of cathinone on increases of aggression, anxiety, abnormal responses, withdrawal, and appetite loss. The findings demonstrate that at high doses and long-term exposure, cathinone causes behavioural alterations probably via changes in presynaptic striatal dopamine system.

Medicinal plants used in treatment and management of cancer in Kakamega County, Kenya.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Traditional medicine plays a critical role in treatment of chronic debilitating and life threatening conditions and diseases. Cancer is one such condition whose therapeutic intervention is commonly through inexpensive traditional herbal remedies. Increasingly industrialised societies are developing drugs and chemotherapeutics from these traditional herbal plants. Plant biogeography determines the abundance and availability of medicinal plants which in turn determine their use by local communities. The present study was carried out in Kakamega County of Kenya to identify and document medicinal plants used for treatment and management of cancer states by communities living adjacent to Kakamega Tropical rainforest of Kakamega County, Kenya. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An ethnobotanical survey was done using semi-structured questionnaires administered to 32 randomly selected herbalists from Kakamega County. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Sixty five (65) plants of 59 genera and 32 families were identified as candidates in therapeutic intervention against cancer states. Most commonly cited plant species were Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv. ssp. nilotica (Seem), Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze, Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex poir, Prunus africana (Hook. f.) kalkman, Cyphostemma serpens (A. Rich), Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don and Aloe volkensii Engl. The following were documented for the first time; Aeschynomene abyssinica (A. Rich.) Vatke, Synsepalum cerasiferum (welw.) T. D penn., Albizia coriaria Welw. ex Oliv., Aloe volkensii Engl. Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill, Croton macrostachyus Delile, Cyphostemma serpens (A. Rich), Dicliptera laxata C.B. Clarke, Ekebergia capensis Sparrm., Gardenia volkensii K. schum. ssp. volkensii, Glycine wightii (wight & Arn.), Ocimum gratissimum Suave, Olea hotcsh spp. hochstetteri, Pavetta abyssinica Fresen., Phyllanthus fischeri Pax, Psydrax schimperiana (A. Rich), Rhus vulgaris Meikle, Senna didymobotyra (Fresen.) Irwin and Barneby, Solanecio nandensis (S. Moore) C. Jeffrey, Solanum mauritianum Scop, Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv. ssp. nilotica (Seem), Spermacoce princea (K. Schum.) Verdc., Tabernaemontana stapfiana Britten, Tragia brevipes Pax and Zanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) P.G.Waterman. The most frequently used plant parts were fresh or dried leaves and stem barks. Administration to patients was almost exclusively oral, with the exceptions being topical application especially for breast cancer and skin sarcomas. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified diverse medicinal plants used in therapeutic and management intervention against cancer by communities living adjacent to Kakamega Tropical Rainforest. The primary mode of administration was oral.

Preliminary investigation of contractile activity of Ricinus communis and Euclea divinorum extracts on isolated rabbit uterine strips.

UNLABELLED: Ricinus communis and Euclea divinorum of the family Euphorbiaceae and Ebenaceae, respectively, are traditionally used by Traditional Birth Attendants (TBAs) in Machakos district of Kenya to induce or augment labor, manage protracted labor, post-partum hemorrhage and retained after birth. Ethno-pharmacological relevance of the study will be the provision of scientific evidence and justification for the ethnic use of both plants as oxytocic agents in the initiation of labor, treatment of prolonged labor, post-partum hemorrhage and retained placenta. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The plants were harvested in the wild, identified and voucher specimens preserved. The root bark was processed to powder form, from which aqueous and ethanol extracts were obtained. Each of the extracts was separately tested on isolated uterine muscle tissue from non-pregnant and pregnant rabbits. The effect on contraction frequency (number of contractions per second) in the absence or presence of oxytocin was evaluated statistically using ANOVA. P values <0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: All uteri exhibited a strong initial contraction following exposure to the aqueous and ethanol root bark extracts of both plants. After recovery, the resumed contraction frequencies varied with the plant extract and exogenous hormone. The results show that the extracts of both plants were able to stimulate uterine tissue contractility directly and to augment the tissue's response to oxytocin. The increase in uterine contractions as a percentage relative to negative controls was particularly significant in pregnant rabbit tissues in the presence of oxytocin, where increments of up to 245% were observed. Further pharmacological studies are however required to determine the active principles, possible mechanisms of action, efficacy and safety margins of the plant extracts.

Practices of traditional birth attendants in Machakos District, kenya.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The aim of the study was to document TBAs practices as well as the indigenous herbal remedies they use to manage pre, intra and post partum complications in a rural Kenyan community. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A cross sectional study was conducted on practicing TBAs and their clients living in the study area. Data was collected using structured questionnaires and interviews. Focused group discussions were held with the TBAs to supplement the interviews and questionnaire survey. RESULTS: Two hundred TBAs and 20 clients were interviewed. The majority of the TBAs were females 75% of them having attended to over 200 pregnant women over a period of 5 years and above compared to only 6% of the males. A total of 10 pregnancy related complications and symptoms including threatened abortion, labor complications, post partum hemorrhage and retained after birth were recorded. Fifty five plant species most of them belonging to Euphorbiaceae family were identified for the management of the complications. CONCLUSION: Traditional Birth Attendants still have a role to play in assisting pregnant women in rural communities. Their knowledge on herbal medicines is equally important and should be preserved for posterity.

Challenges unique to the design of a comprehensive questionnaire assessing breast cancer risk factors among women in sub-Saharan Africa.

We assessed the efficacy of a pilot questionnaire designed to elicit information about external risk factors for breast cancer in sub-Saharan African women. Preliminary analysis identified areas of the questionnaire and interviewing process that required modification, as well as socioeconomic factors that contribute to reduced participation among these understudied populations.