Mycobacterium tuberculosis PE/PPE proteins enhance the production of reactive oxygen species and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps.

Introduction: Neutrophil granulocytes predominate in the lungs of patients infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) in earlier stages of the disease. During infection, neutrophils release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), an antimicrobial mechanism by which a DNA-backbone spiked with antimicrobial components traps the mycobacteria. However, the specific mycobacterial factors driving NET formation remain unclear. Proteins from the proline-glutamic acid (PE)/proline-proline-glutamic acid (PPE) family are critical to Mtb pathophysiology and virulence. Methods: Here, we investigated NET induction by PE18, PPE26, and PE31 in primary human blood-derived neutrophils. Neutrophils were stimulated with the respective proteins for 3h, and NET formation was subsequently assessed using confocal fluorescence microscopy. Intracellular ROS levels and cell necrosis were estimated by flow cytometry. Additionally, the influence of phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA), a known NADPH oxidase enhancer, on NET formation was examined. Neutrophil integrity following incubation with the PE/PPE proteins was evaluated using transmission electron microscopy. Results: For the first time, we report that stimulation of primary human blood-derived neutrophils with Mtb proteins PE18, PPE26, and PE31 resulted in the formation of NETs, which correlated with an increase in intracellular ROS levels. Notably, the presence of PMA further amplified this effect. Following incubation with the PE/PPE proteins, neutrophils were found to remain viable and structurally intact, as verified through transmission electron microscopy, indicating the occurrence of vital NET formation. Discussion: These findings offer valuable insights that contribute to a better understanding of host-pathogen interactions during Mtb infection. Moreover, they underscore the significance of these particular Mtb antigens in triggering NET formation, representing a distinctive and previously unrecognized function of PE/PPE antigens.

Immunogenicity of a recombinant fusion construct composed of intrinsically unstructured, low polymorphic segments derived from merozoite surface protein 2 and trophozoite exported protein 1.

To overcome the extensive polymorphism found in human Plasmodium antigens and to avoid the lengthy characterization of their 3 dimensional structure and subsequent production of the native proteins we have been concentrated in large unstructured, non-or low-polymorphic fragments present in the blood stage of P. falciparum. Three fragments derived from the 2 family-specific and constant regions of merozoite surface protein (MSP2) and PFF0165c protein were previously selected for evaluation as potential single vaccine candidates. In order to increase and optimize their potential efficacy against P. falciparum infection the 3 antigens were combined in a single DNA recombinant product (FusN) and compared its antigenicity with that of single antigens in sera of volunteers living in endemic countries. Immunogenicity of the FusN was then compared with that of the mixture of 3 antigens in 3 strains of mice. Antigen specific, affinity purified human antibodies were then tested in antibody dependent cellular inhibition and merozoite opsonization assays. In addition, the antigen specific antibody response and its association with protection from malaria infection were determined. The data collected indicate that the recombinant product is an equal or better antigen /immunogen than fragments used either alone or as a mixture for vaccination in combination with adjuvant. In addition, antibody response to FusN shows a stronger association with protection than single fragments. The use of a single construct as vaccine would drastically reduce the cost of manufacturing and development of the GMP product.

A Specific Blood Signature Reveals Higher Levels of S100A12: A Potential Bladder Cancer Diagnostic Biomarker Along With Urinary Engrailed-2 Protein Detection.

Urothelial carcinoma of the urinary bladder (UCB) or bladder cancer remains a major health problem with high morbidity and mortality rates, especially in the western world. UCB is also associated with the highest cost per patient. In recent years numerous markers have been evaluated for suitability in UCB detection and surveillance. However, to date none of these markers can replace or even reduce the use of routine tools (cytology and cystoscopy). Our current study described UCB's extensive expression profile and highlighted the variations with normal bladder tissue. Our data revealed that JUP, PTGDR, KLRF1, MT-TC, and RNU6-135P are associated with prognosis in patients with UCB. The microarray expression data identified also S100A12, S100A8, and NAMPT as potential UCB biomarkers. Pathway analysis revealed that natural killer cell mediated cytotoxicity is the most involved pathway. Our analysis showed that S100A12 protein may be useful as a biomarker for early UCB detection. Plasma S100A12 has been observed in patients with UCB with an overall sensitivity of 90.5% and a specificity of 75%. S100A12 is highly expressed preferably in high-grade and high-stage UCB. Furthermore, using a panel of more than hundred urine samples, a prototype lateral flow test for the transcription factor Engrailed-2 (EN2) also showed reasonable sensitivity (85%) and specificity (71%). Such findings provide confidence to further improve and refine the EN2 rapid test for use in clinical practice. In conclusion, S100A12 and EN2 have shown potential value as biomarker candidates for UCB patients. These results can speed up the discovery of biomarkers, improving diagnostic accuracy and may help the management of UCB.

Nanoparticle-Fusion Protein Complexes Protect against Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infection.

Tuberculosis (TB) is the leading cause of death from infectious disease, and the current vaccine, Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG), is inadequate. Nanoparticles (NPs) are an emerging vaccine technology, with recent successes in oncology and infectious diseases. NPs have been exploited as antigen delivery systems and also for their adjuvantic properties. However, the mechanisms underlying their immunological activity remain obscure. Here, we developed a novel mucosal TB vaccine (Nano-FP1) based upon yellow carnauba wax NPs (YC-NPs), coated with a fusion protein consisting of three Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) antigens: Acr, Ag85B, and HBHA. Mucosal immunization of BCG-primed mice with Nano-FP1 significantly enhanced protection in animals challenged with low-dose, aerosolized Mtb. Bacterial control by Nano-FP1 was associated with dramatically enhanced cellular immunity compared to BCG, including superior CD4+ and CD8+ T cell proliferation, tissue-resident memory T cell (Trm) seeding in the lungs, and cytokine polyfunctionality. Alongside these effects, we also observed potent humoral responses, such as the generation of Ag85B-specific serum IgG and respiratory IgA. Finally, we found that YC-NPs were able to activate antigen-presenting cells via an unconventional IRF-3-associated activation signature, without the production of potentially harmful inflammatory mediators, providing a mechanistic framework for vaccine efficacy and future development.

Novel drug targets in cell wall biosynthesis exploited by gene disruption in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

For clinicians, Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a nightmare pathogen that is one of the top three causes of opportunistic human infections. Therapy of P. aeruginosa infections is complicated due to its natural high intrinsic resistance to antibiotics. Active efflux and decreased uptake of drugs due to cell wall/membrane permeability appear to be important issues in the acquired antibiotic tolerance mechanisms. Bacterial cell wall biosynthesis enzymes have been shown to be essential for pathogenicity of Gram-negative bacteria. However, the role of these targets in virulence has not been identified in P. aeruginosa. Here, we report knockout (k.o) mutants of six cell wall biosynthesis targets (murA, PA4450; murD, PA4414; murF, PA4416; ppiB, PA1793; rmlA, PA5163; waaA, PA4988) in P. aeruginosa PAO1, and characterized these in order to find out whether these genes and their products contribute to pathogenicity and virulence of P. aeruginosa. Except waaA k.o, deletion of cell wall biosynthesis targets significantly reduced growth rate in minimal medium compared to the parent strain. The k.o mutants showed exciting changes in cell morphology and colonial architectures. Remarkably, ΔmurF cells became grossly enlarged. Moreover, the mutants were also attenuated in vivo in a mouse infection model except ΔmurF and ΔwaaA and proved to be more sensitive to macrophage-mediated killing than the wild-type strain. Interestingly, the deletion of the murA gene resulted in loss of virulence activity in mice, and the virulence was restored in a plant model by unknown mechanism. This study demonstrates that cell wall targets contribute significantly to intracellular survival, in vivo growth, and pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa. In conclusion, these findings establish a link between cell wall targets and virulence of P. aeruginosa and thus may lead to development of novel drugs for the treatment of P. aeruginosa infection.

Hypoxia Modulates the Response of Mast Cells to Staphylococcus aureus Infection.

To study the antimicrobial function of immune cells ex vivo, cells are commonly cultivated under atmospheric oxygen concentrations (20-21%; normoxia), although the physiological oxygen conditions in vivo are significantly lower in most tissues. Especially during an acute infection, oxygen concentration locally decreases to hypoxic levels around or below 1%. The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of hypoxia on the activity of mast cells (MCs). MCs were cultivated for 3 or 24 h at 1% O2 in a hypoxia glove box and co-incubated with heat-inactivated Staphylococcus aureus. When incubating the cells for 24 h under hypoxia, the transcriptional regulator hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) was stabilized and resulted in increased extracellular trap formation and decreased phagocytosis. Interestingly, while phagocytosis of fluorescent S. aureus bioparticles as well as the release of extracellular traps remained unaffected at 3 h hypoxia, the secretion of the prestored mediator histamine was increased under hypoxia alone. In contrast, the release of TNF-α was generally reduced at 3 h hypoxia. Microarray transcriptome analysis revealed 13 genes that were significantly downregulated in MCs comparing 3 h hypoxia versus normoxia. One interesting candidate is sec24, a member of the pre-budding complex of coat protein complex II (COPII), which is responsible for the anterograde transport of proteins from the ER to the Golgi apparatus. These data lead to the suggestion that de novo synthesized proteins including crucial factors, which are involved in the response to an acute infection like TNF-α, may eventually be retained in the ER under hypoxia. Importantly, the expression of HIF-1α was not altered at 3 h. Thus, our data exhibit a HIF-1α-independent reaction of MCs to short-term hypoxia. We hypothesize that MCs respond to short-term low oxygen levels in a HIF-1α-independent manner by downregulating the release of proinflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, thereby avoiding uncontrolled degranulation, which could lead to excessive inflammation and severe tissue damage.

Vaccination with the Surface Proteins MUL_2232 and MUL_3720 of Mycobacterium ulcerans Induces Antibodies but Fails to Provide Protection against Buruli Ulcer.

BACKGROUND: Buruli ulcer, caused by infection with Mycobacterium ulcerans, is a chronic ulcerative neglected tropical disease of the skin and subcutaneous tissue that is most prevalent in West African countries. M. ulcerans produces a cytotoxic macrolide exotoxin called mycolactone, which causes extensive necrosis of infected subcutaneous tissue and the development of characteristic ulcerative lesions with undermined edges. While cellular immune responses are expected to play a key role against early intracellular stages of M. ulcerans in macrophages, antibody mediated protection might be of major relevance against advanced stages, where bacilli are predominantly found as extracellular clusters. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: To assess whether vaccine induced antibodies against surface antigens of M. ulcerans can protect against Buruli ulcer we formulated two surface vaccine candidate antigens, MUL_2232 and MUL_3720, as recombinant proteins with the synthetic Toll-like receptor 4 agonist glucopyranosyl lipid adjuvant-stable emulsion. The candidate vaccines elicited strong antibody responses without a strong bias towards a TH1 type cellular response, as indicated by the IgG2a to IgG1 ratio. Despite the cross-reactivity of the induced antibodies with the native antigens, no significant protection was observed against progression of an experimental M. ulcerans infection in a mouse footpad challenge model. CONCLUSIONS: Even though vaccine-induced antibodies have the potential to opsonise the extracellular bacilli they do not have a protective effect since infiltrating phagocytes might be killed by mycolactone before reaching the bacteria, as indicated by lack of viable infiltrates in the necrotic infection foci.

A Subgroup of Latently Mycobacterium tuberculosis Infected Individuals Is Characterized by Consistently Elevated IgA Responses to Several Mycobacterial Antigens.

Elevated antibody responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens in individuals with latent infection (LTBI) have previously been linked to an increased risk for progression to active disease. Studies in the field focussed mainly on IgG antibodies. In the present study, IgA and/or IgG responses to the mycobacterial protein antigens AlaDH, NarL, 19 kDa, PstS3, and MPT83 were determined in a blinded fashion in sera from 53 LTBI controls, 14 healthy controls, and 42 active TB subjects. Among controls, we found that elevated IgA levels against all investigated antigens were not randomly distributed but concentrated on a subgroup of <30%-with particular high levels in a small subgroup of ~5% comprising one progressor to active TB. Based on a specificity of 100%, anti-NarL IgA antibodies achieved with 78.6% sensitivity the highest accuracy for the detection of active TB compared to healthy controls. In conclusion, the consistently elevated IgA levels in a subgroup of controls suggest higher mycobacterial load, a risk factor for progression to active TB, and together with high IgG levels may have prognostic potential and should be investigated in future large scale studies. The novel antigen NarL may also be promising for the antibody-based diagnosis of active TB cases.

Isoniazid@Fe2 O3 Nanocontainers and Their Antibacterial Effect on Tuberculosis Mycobacteria.

Isoniazid-filled Fe2 O3 hollow nanospheres (INH@Fe2 O3 , diameter <30 nm, 48 wt % INH-load) are prepared for the first time and suggested for tuberculosis therapy. After dextran-functionalization, the INH@Fe2 O3 @DEX nanocontainers show strong activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb.) and M.tb.-infected macrophages. The nanocontainers can be considered as "Trojan horses" and show efficient, active uptake into both M.tb.-infected macrophages and even into mycobacterial cells.

Structures of citrate synthase and malate dehydrogenase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle is a central metabolic pathway of all aerobic organisms and is responsible for the synthesis of many important precursors and molecules. TCA cycle plays a key role in the metabolism of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is involved in the adaptation process of the bacteria to the host immune response. We present here the first crystal structures of M. tuberculosis malate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase, two consecutive enzymes of the TCA, at 2.6 Å and 1.5 Å resolution, respectively. General analogies and local differences with the previously reported homologous protein structures are described.

Novel human recombinant antibodies against Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigen 85B.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis is the leading cause of death due to bacterial infections worldwide, mainly caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The antigen 85 complex comprises a set of major secreted proteins of M. tuberculosis, which are potential biomarkers for diagnostic. RESULTS: In this work, the first human single chain fragment variable (scFv) antibodies specific for the tuberculosis biomarker 85 B were selected by phage display from naïve antibody gene libraries (HAL7/8). Produced as scFv-Fc in mammalian cells, these antibodies were further characterized and analysed for specificity and applicability in different tuberculosis antigen detection assays. Sandwich detection of recombinant 85 B was successful in enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), lateral flow immunoassay and immunoblot. Whereas detection of M. tuberculosis cell extracts and culture filtrates was only possible in direct ELISA and immunoblot assays. It was found that the conformation of 85 B, depending on sample treatment, influenced antigen detection. CONCLUSIONS: Recombinant antibodies, selected by phage display, may be applicable for 85 B detection in various assays. These antibodies are candidates for the development of future point of care tuberculosis diagnostic kits. Using 85 B as a biomarker, the antigen conformation influenced by sample treatment is important.

Serologic diagnosis of tuberculosis by combining Ig classes against selected mycobacterial targets.

INTRODUCTION: Accurate, simple and cost-effective diagnostic tests are needed for diagnosis of active tuberculosis (TB). Serodiagnosis is attractive as it can be harnessed for point-of-care tests. METHODS: We evaluated, in a blinded fashion, the sensitivity and specificity of serologic immunoglobulin (Ig)G, IgA and/or IgM responses to Apa, heat shock protein (HSP) 16.3, HSP20, PE35, probable thiol peroxidase Tpx and lipoarabinomannan (LAM) in 42 HIV-negative South African pulmonary TB patients and 67 control individuals. The status of latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection (LTBI) among controls was defined through the TST and IFN-γ release assays (IGRAs). We evaluated 47 definite LTBI (IGRA(+)/LTBI), 8 putative LTBI (IGRA(-)/TST(+)) and 12 TB-uninfected (non-LTBI) subjects. RESULTS: In contrast to anti-PE35 IgA, anti-PE35 IgG and particularly anti-Apa IgA, performances of anti-LAM IgG and selected anti-protein antibodies were less affected by inclusion of LTBI participants into the analysis. Anti-LAM IgG showed with a sensitivity/specificity of 71.4%/86.6% (p < 0.001) the best discrimination between TB and non-TB subjects. Selected five-antibody-combinations (including anti-LAM IgG, anti-LAM IgA and anti-Tpx IgG) further improved this performance to an accuracy exceeding 86%. CONCLUSIONS: Antibody responses to some Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens often also reflect latent infection explaining the poor performance of antibody-based tests for active TB in TB-endemic settings. Our results suggest that rather a combination of serological responses against selected protein and non-protein antigens and different Ig classes should be investigated for TB serodiagnostics.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase is regulated by redox mechanisms and interaction with thioredoxin.

Tuberculosis remains a major health concern worldwide. Eradication of its causative agent, the bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is particularly challenging due to a vast reservoir of latent carriers of the disease. Despite the misleading terminology of a so-called dormant state associated with latent infections, the bacteria have to maintain basic metabolic activities. Hypoxic conditions have been widely used as an in vitro system to study this dormancy. Such studies identified a rearrangement of central carbon metabolism to exploit fermentative processes caused by the lack of oxygen. Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (Pck; EC 4.1.1.32) is the enzyme at the center of these metabolic rearrangements. Although Pck is associated with gluconeogenesis under standard growth conditions, the enzyme can catalyze the reverse reaction, supporting anaplerosis of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, under conditions leading to slowed or stopped bacterial replication. To study the mechanisms that regulate the switch between two Pck functions, we systematically investigated factors influencing the gluconeogenic and anaplerotic reaction kinetics. We demonstrate that a reducing environment, as found under hypoxia-triggered non-replicating conditions, accelerates the reaction in the anaplerotic direction. Furthermore, we identified proteins that interact with Pck. The interaction between Pck and the reduced form of mycobacterial thioredoxin, gene expression of which is increased under hypoxic conditions, also increased the Pck anaplerotic activity. We thus propose that a reducing environment and the protein-protein interaction with thioredoxin in particular enable the Pck anaplerotic function under fermentative growth conditions.

Crystal structure of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis phosphate binding protein PstS3.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis evades host immune responses by colonizing macrophages. Intraphagosomal M. tuberculosis is exposed to environmental stresses such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates as well as acid shock and inorganic phosphate (Pi) depletion. Experimental evidence suggests that expression levels of mycobacterial protein PstS3 (Rv0928) are significantly increased when M. tuberculosis bacilli are exposed to Pi starvation. Hence, PstS3 may be important for survival of Mtb in conditions where there is limited supply of Pi. We report here the structure of PstS3 from M. tuberculosis at 2.3-Å resolution. The protein presents a structure typical for ABC phosphate transfer receptors. Comparison with its cognate receptor PstS1 showed a different pattern distribution of surface charges in proximity to the Pi recognition site, suggesting complementary roles of the two proteins in Pi uptake.

Allosteric competitive inhibitors of the glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (RmlA) catalyzes the condensation of glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) with deoxy-thymidine triphosphate (dTTP) to yield dTDP-d-glucose and pyrophosphate. This is the first step in the l-rhamnose biosynthetic pathway. l-Rhamnose is an important component of the cell wall of many microorganisms, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Here we describe the first nanomolar inhibitors of P. aeruginosa RmlA. These thymine analogues were identified by high-throughput screening and subsequently optimized by a combination of protein crystallography, in silico screening, and synthetic chemistry. Some of the inhibitors show inhibitory activity against M. tuberculosis. The inhibitors do not bind at the active site of RmlA but bind at a second site remote from the active site. Despite this, the compounds act as competitive inhibitors of G1P but with high cooperativity. This novel behavior was probed by structural analysis, which suggests that the inhibitors work by preventing RmlA from undergoing the conformational change key to its ordered bi-bi mechanism.

Tetrahydrodipicolinate N-succinyltransferase and dihydrodipicolinate synthase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa: structure analysis and gene deletion.

The diaminopimelic acid pathway of lysine biosynthesis has been suggested to provide attractive targets for the development of novel antibacterial drugs. Here we report the characterization of two enzymes from this pathway in the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, utilizing structural biology, biochemistry and genetics. We show that tetrahydrodipicolinate N-succinyltransferase (DapD) from P. aeruginosa is specific for the L-stereoisomer of the amino substrate L-2-aminopimelate, and its D-enantiomer acts as a weak inhibitor. The crystal structures of this enzyme with L-2-aminopimelate and D-2-aminopimelate, respectively, reveal that both compounds bind at the same site of the enzyme. Comparison of the binding interactions of these ligands in the enzyme active site suggests misalignment of the amino group of D-2-aminopimelate for nucleophilic attack on the succinate moiety of the co-substrate succinyl-CoA as the structural basis of specificity and inhibition. P. aeruginosa mutants where the dapA gene had been deleted were viable and able to grow in a mouse lung infection model, suggesting that DapA is not an optimal target for drug development against this organism. Structure-based sequence alignments, based on the DapA crystal structure determined to 1.6 Å resolution revealed the presence of two homologues, PA0223 and PA4188, in P. aeruginosa that could substitute for DapA in the P. aeruginosa PAO1ΔdapA mutant. In vitro experiments using recombinant PA0223 protein could however not detect any DapA activity.

Silencing suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 (SOCS1) in macrophages improves Mycobacterium tuberculosis control in an interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)-dependent manner.

Protection against infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis demands IFN-γ. SOCS1 has been shown to inhibit responses to IFN-γ and might thereby play a central role in the outcome of infection. We found that M. tuberculosis is a highly efficient stimulator of SOCS1 expression in murine and human macrophages and in tissues from infected mice. Surprisingly, SOCS1 reduced responses to IL-12, resulting in an impaired IFN-γ secretion by macrophages that in turn accounted for a deteriorated intracellular mycobacterial control. Despite SOCS1 expression, mycobacteria-infected macrophages responded to exogenously added IFN-γ. SOCS1 attenuated the expression of the majority of genes modulated by M. tuberculosis infection of macrophages. Using a conditional knockdown strategy in mice, we found that SOCS1 expression by macrophages hampered M. tuberculosis clearance early after infection in vivo in an IFN-γ-dependent manner. On the other hand, at later time points, SOCS1 expression by non-macrophage cells protected the host from infection-induced detrimental inflammation.

The M. tuberculosis phosphate-binding lipoproteins PstS1 and PstS3 induce Th1 and Th17 responses that are not associated with protection against M. tuberculosis infection.

The M. tuberculosis phosphate-binding transporter lipoproteins PstS1 and PstS3 were good immunogens inducing CD8(+) T-cell activation and both Th1 and Th17 immunity in mice. However, this antigen-specific immunity, even when amplified by administration of the protein with the adjuvant LTK63 or by the DNA priming/protein boosting regimen, was not able to contain M. tuberculosis replication in the lungs of infected mice. The lack of protection might be ascribed with the scarce/absent capacity of PstS1/PstS3 antigens to modulate the IFN-γ response elicited by M. tuberculosis infection during which, however, PstS1-specific IL-17 secreting cells were generated in both unvaccinated and BCG-vaccinated mice. In spite of a lack of protection by PstS1/PstS3 immunizations, our results do show that PstS1 is able to induce IL-17 response upon M. tuberculosis infection which is of interest in the study of anti-M. tuberculosis immunity and as potential immunomodulator in combined vaccines.

Homologous expression of the nrdF gene of Corynebacterium ammoniagenes strain ATCC 6872 generates a manganese-metallocofactor (R2F) and a stable tyrosyl radical (Y˙) involved in ribonucleotide reduction.

Ribonucleotide reduction, the unique step in the pathway to DNA synthesis, is catalyzed by enzymes via radical-dependent redox chemistry involving an array of diverse metallocofactors. The nucleotide reduction gene (nrdF) encoding the metallocofactor containing small subunit (R2F) of the Corynebacterium ammoniagenes ribonucleotide reductase was reintroduced into strain C. ammoniagenes ATCC 6872. Efficient homologous expression from plasmid pOCA2 using the tac-promotor enabled purification of R2F to homogeneity. The chromatographic protocol provided native R2F with a high ratio of manganese to iron (30:1), high activity (69 µmol 2'-deoxyribonucleotide·mg⁻¹ ·min⁻¹) and distinct absorption at 408 nm, characteristic of a tyrosyl radical (Y˙), which is sensitive to the radical scavenger hydroxyurea. A novel enzyme assay revealed the direct involvement of Y˙ in ribonucleotide reduction because 0.2 nmol 2'-deoxyribonucleotide was formed, driven by 0.4 nmol Y˙ located on R2F. X-band electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy demonstrated a tyrosyl radical at an effective g-value of 2.004. Temperature dependent X/Q-band EPR studies revealed that this radical is coupled to a metallocofactor. Similarities of the native C. ammoniagenes ribonucleotide reductase to the in vitro activated Escherichia coli class Ib enzyme containing a dimanganese(III)-tyrosyl metallocofactor are discussed.

The mycolyltransferase 85A, a putative drug target of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: development of a novel assay and quantification of glycolipid-status of the mycobacterial cell wall.

The enzymes of the antigen 85 complex (Ag85A, B, and C) possess mycolyltransferase activity and catalyze the synthesis of the most abundant glycolipid of the mycobacterial cell wall, the cord factor. The cord factor (trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate, TDM) is essential for the integrity of the mycobacterial cell wall and pathogenesis of the bacillus. Thus, TDM biosynthesis is regarded as a potential drug target for control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Trehalose 6,6'-dimycolate (TDM) is synthesized from two molecules of trehalose-6'-monomycolate (TMM) by antigen 85A. We report here a novel enzyme assay using the natural substrate TMM. The novel colorimetric assay is based on the quantification of glucose from the degradation of trehalose, which is the product from catalytic activity of antigen 85A. Using the new assay, K(m) and K(cat) were determined with values of 129.6+/-8.1 microM and 65.4+/-4.1 min(-1), respectively. This novel assay is also suitable for robust high-throughput screening (HTS) for compound library screening against mycolyltransferase (antigen 85A). The assay is significantly faster and more convenient to use than all assays currently in use. The assay has a very low coefficient of variance (0.04) in 96-well plates and shows a Z' factor of 0.67-0.73, indicating the robustness of the assay. In addition, this new assay is highly suitable for the quantification of total TMM of the mycobacterial cell envelope.