Molecular detection of rabies virus strain with N-gene that clustered with China lineage 2 co-circulating with Africa lineages in Monrovia, Liberia: first reported case in Africa.

Despite a long history of dog-transmitted human rabies outbreaks in Liberia, West Africa, no reports exist of molecular characterisation of the causative lyssaviruses. This study investigated Rabies lyssavirus (RABV) strains isolated at the dog-human interface in Monrovia, Liberia 2016 and 2017, by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, using primers specific for the nucleoprotein (N) gene. Out of 20 specimens (19 dog brain samples and one human saliva) tested as suspected rabies cases, three (15%) were positive. Purified amplicons from all three positive specimens were sequenced in both forward and reverse directions. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted in MEGA7 and PhyML3 to determine their relationship with RABV sequences accessioned in NCBI GenBank. The first of three RABV strains detected clustered with China lineage 2 RABVs of dogs (99% homology to KU963489 and DQ666322). The second strain segregated with Africa lineage 2 RABVs also of dog origin, and the third strain segregated with Africa lineage 3 RABVs of Southern Africa viverrids. Our results show a transcontinental strain of rabies virus co-circulating with Africa lineages in post-conflict Liberia. This finding should stimulate more effective sub-regional planning and execution of one-health actions, towards stepwise surveillance and elimination of rabies in West Africa by 2030.

Serological Detection of Ebola Virus Exposures in Native Non-human Primates of Southern Nigeria.

Ebola viruses (family: Filoviridae) are the cause of Ebola virus disease (EVD), a highly fatal illness characterised by haemorrhagic fever syndrome in both humans and non-human primates (NHPs). West Africa was the epicentre of the 2013-2015 EVD epidemic which caused the death of over 11,000 people, including eight casualties in southern Nigeria. Antibodies to filoviruses have been detected among NHPs in some countries, but there is no documented evidence of exposures to filoviruses among NHPs in Nigeria. From August 2015 to February 2017, a total of 142 serum samples were obtained from individual captive and wild animals, belonging to 11 NHP species, in southern Nigeria, and screened for species-specific antibodies to filoviruses belonging to the species; Zaire ebolavirus [Ebola virus (EBOV)], Sudan ebolavirus [Sudan virus (SUDV)], and Marburg marburgvirus [Ravn virus (RAVV)]-using a modified filovirus species-specific ELISA technique. Of the sera tested, 2.1% (3/142) were positive for antibodies to EBOV. The entire 142 sera were negative for SUDV or RAVV. These findings point to the existence of natural exposures of NHPs in southern Nigeria to EBOV. There is need to discourage, the uncontrolled hunting of NHPs in Nigeria for public health safety.

Molecular detection of influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses with M genes from human pandemic strains among Nigerian pigs, 2013-2015: implications and associated risk factors.

In the post-pandemic period, influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus has been detected in swine populations in different parts of the world. This study was conducted to determine the presence and spatial patterns of this human pandemic virus among Nigerian pigs and identify associated risk factors. Using a two-stage stratified random sampling method, nasal swab specimens were obtained from pigs in Ibadan, Nigeria during the 2013-2014 and 2014-2015 influenza seasons, and the virus was detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Purified RT-PCR products were sequenced in both directions, and sequences were aligned using MUSCLE. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted in MEGA6. Purely spatial scan statistics and a spatial lag regression model were used to identify spatial clusters and associated risk factors. The virus was detected in both seasons, with an overall prevalence of 8·7%. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the M genes were similar to those of pandemic strains which circulated in humans prior to and during the study. Cluster analysis revealed a significant primary spatial cluster (RR = 4·71, LLR = 5·66, P = 0·0046), while 'hours spent with pigs (R 2 = 0·90, P = 0·0018)' and 'hours spent with pigs from different farms (R 2 = 0·91, P = 0·0001)' were identified as significant risk factors (P < 0·05). These findings reveal that there is considerable risk of transmission of the pandemic virus, either directly from pig handlers or through fomites, to swine herds in Ibadan, Nigeria. Active circulation of the virus among Nigerian pigs could enhance its reassortment with endemic swine influenza viruses. Campaigns for adoption of biosecurity measures in West African piggeries and abattoirs should be introduced and sustained in order to prevent the emergence of a new influenza epicentre in the sub-region.

Serological evidence of coronavirus infections in native hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas hamadryas) of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

The hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas) is the only indigenous species of non-human primates (NHP) found in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). There are no peer-reviewed publications on viral infections of the baboons of KSA. Apart from camels, other animals are likely sources of the novel Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERSCoV) for humans. We investigated evidence of highly pathogenic coronavirus infections including MERSCoV in a large group of commensal baboons accompanied by feral dogs, on the outskirts of Ta'if city, KSA, in February 2013. Fifty baboons (16 juveniles and 34 adults) were screened for serum antibodies to human coronaviruses (HCoV-043/-NL63/-229) and canine coronaviruses (CCoV-1-3) using direct Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) technique and for MERSCoV antibodies using Serum Neutralization Test (SNT). Of the 50 sampled baboons, 22% (n = 11) were seropositive to HCoVs, 10% (n = 5) were seropositive to CCoVs, while none had detectable MERSCoV antibodies. These findings bear potentially significant implications for public health, canine health and baboon conservation efforts, necessitating follow-up investigations and preventive measures at locations where baboons frequent human habitations, or are regarded as tourist attractions, in KSA.

A Comparison of Surface Infrared with Rectal Thermometry in Dogs.

Accurate determination of temperature is crucial in the diagnosis of febrile conditions. Although fewer techniques have proven as useful and reliable a predictor of core body temperature as the rectal thermometry, the process of obtaining the rectal temperature could be stressful in dogs. The infrared thermometry is a noncontact device used for measuring body temperature, with advantages which include speed, convenience, and reduced stress to the animals and reduced occupational risks to the animal handler. Therefore, there is the need to assess the consistency and agreement between non-contact infrared thermometry and traditional rectal thermometry in body temperature estimation. This study compared and assessed the sensitivity of non-contact infrared thermometer used on the forehead and nasal regions respectively with that of a rectal thermometer in dogs for body temperature estimation. One hundred and thirty (130) dogs presented for veterinary attention at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH), University of Ibadan, Nigeria were enrolled in this study during August to September 2014, irrespective of sex, age, breed or health status. Temperatures of dogs presented at the clinic were obtained using both multiple non-contact infrared thermometric measures obtained in the nasal and frontal head regions; and by rectal temperature. A multivariate cross-matrix analysis was used to assess the difference in measurements between the rectal thermometry and non-contact infrared thermometry. Descriptive statistics was used to compare variation and trend regularity of the nasal and fore-head infrared thermometry. A logistic regression of the difference in measurements was computed at 95% confidence interval and P<0.05. The mean difference revealed that the rectal temperature was 5.330C higher than the non-contact infrared forehead-based temperature and 7.570C higher than nasal-based temperature measurements respectively. The Bland-Altman (B-A) plot showed that the 95% limits of agreement between the frontal and nasal obtained infrared laser thermometry methods. Temperature measure obtained using non-contact infrared thermometry (forehead and nasal region of the head) was poor in consistency and agreement compared to rectal thermometry. Usefulness of non-contact forehead infrared thermometry in routine clinical practice as a close estimate of core body temperature depends on accurate calibration and therefore not recommended.

Antigenic Detection of Human Strain of Influenza Virus A (H3N2) in Swine Populations at Three Locations in Nigeria and Ghana during the Dry Early Months of 2014.

Since the first detection of human H3N2 influenza virus in Taiwanese pigs in 1970, infection of pigs with wholly human viruses has been known to occur in other parts of the world. These viruses, referred to as human-like H3N2 viruses, have been known to cause clinical and subclinical infections of swine populations. Due to the paucity and complete unavailability of information on transmission of influenza viruses from other species, especially humans, to swine in Nigeria and Ghana, respectively, this study was designed to investigate the presence and prevalence of a human strain of influenza A (H3N2) in swine populations at three locations in two cities within these two West African countries in January and February, 2014. Using stratified random technique, nasal swab specimens were collected from seventy-five (75) pigs at two locations in Ibadan, Nigeria and from fifty (50) pigs in Kumasi, Ghana. These specimens were tested directly by a sensitive Quantitative Solid Phase Antigen-detection Sandwich ELISA using anti-A/Brisbane/10/2007 haemagglutinin monoclonal antibody. Influenza virus A/Brisbane/10/2007 (H3N2) was detected among pigs at the three study locations, with an aggregate prevalence of 4.0% for the two locations in Ibadan, Nigeria and also 4.0% for Kumasi, Ghana. Transmission of influenza viruses from other species to swine portends serious sinister prospects for genetic reassortment and evolvement of novel viruses. We therefore recommend that further studies should be carried out to investigate the presence of other circulating human and avian influenza viruses in swine populations in West Africa and also determine the extent of genetic reassortment of strains circulating among these pigs. This would provide an early warning system for detection of novel influenza viruses, which could have pandemic potentials.

The geo-spatial information infrastructure at the Centre for Control and Prevention of Zoonoses, University of Ibadan, Nigeria: an emerging sustainable One-Health pavilion.

BACKGROUND: The World-Wide-Web as a contemporary means of information sharing offers a platform for geo-spatial information dissemination to improve education about spatio-temporal patterns of disease spread at the human-animal-environment interface in developing countries of West Africa. METHODS: In assessing the quality of exposure to geospatial information applications among students in five purposively selected institutions in West Africa, this study reviewed course contents and postgraduate programmes in zoonoses surveillance. Geospatial information content and associated practical exercises in zoonoses surveillance were scored.. Seven criteria were used to categorize and score capability, namely, spatial data capture; thematic map design and interpretation; spatio-temporal analysis; remote sensing of data; statistical modelling; the management of spatial data-profile; and web-based map sharing operation within an organization. These criteria were used to compute weighted exposure during training at the institutions. A categorical description of institution with highest-scoring of computed Cumulative Exposure Point Average (CEPA) was based on an illustration with retrospective records of rabies cases, using data from humans, animals and the environment, that were sourced from Grand Bassa County, Liberia to create and share maps and information with faculty, staff, students and the neighbourhood about animal bite injury surveillance and spatial distribution of rabies-like illness. RESULTS: Uniformly low CEPA values (0-1.3) were observed across academic departments. The highest (3.8) was observed at the Centre for Control and Prevention of Zoonoses (CCPZ), University of Ibadan, Nigeria, where geospatial techniques were systematically taught, and thematic and predictive maps were produced and shared online with other institutions in West Africa. In addition, a short course in zoonosis surveillance, which offers inclusive learning in geospatial applications, is taught at CCPZ. CONCLUSION: The paper presents a graded capability for geospatial data capture, analysis and an emerging sustainable map pavilion dedicated to zoonoses disease surveillance training among collaborating institutions in West Africa.

Geographic access to street food sources for dogs and its association with spatial patterns of animal bite injuries in Enugu, Nigeria, 2005-2011.

BACKGROUND: Accessibility of street food source to dogs in Enugu, the capital city of Enugu State, south-eastern Nigeria was examined in relation to spatial patterns of animal bite injuries in the city. METHOD: Retrospective data on animal bite injuries were retrieved from records of selected hospitals in Enugu and its environs during the period 2005-2011. Victim's residence and street point where animal bite incidence occurred were geo-referenced. Street food sources, including garbage disposal points, meat markets, slaughter facilities and public vehicle terminals in the city were observed and geo-referenced. Thematic maps were designed usingArcGIS 10.1. Spatial scan statistics was used to identify cluster pattern of animal bite injuries and fatal rabies cases. Coefficient of area correspondence (Ca) in spatial cluster with selected variables was computed. RESULTS: One hundred and thirty one cases of animal bite injury cases were retrieved with traceable addresses. These comprised cat bites (n = 1, 0.76%), goat bites (n = 1, 0.76%), monkey bites (n = 2, 1.5%) and dog bites (n = 127, 96.98%). Fatal outcomes (n = 4, 3.15%) were recorded. Males within the age group, 0-15 (46.5%) were at the highest risk. A diffused spatial pattern showed that majority of the study area experienced animal bite injury during the study period. A primary cluster of 15.03km radius and a secondary cluster of 1.11 km radius traversed residential and non-residential areas were identified as rabies high- and low-risk areas. Interspecies bites from non-carnivores (goats and monkeys) and resultant deaths with neurologic signs were pathognomonic for rabies-like-illness in Enugu State. High Ca (0.8) showed a strong correlation between access to street food sources for dogs and the distribution of animal bite injuries on humans. CONCLUSION: While access to street food may support the population of free-roaming dogs, it was also shown to be partly explanatory to spatial patterns of dog bite injury. Public education about responsible pet ownership, waste management, enforcement of animal control regulations and vaccination of free-roaming dogs is critical.

Development of time-trend model for analysing and predicting case pattern of dog bite injury induced rabies-like-illness in Liberia, 2014-2017.

OBJECTIVE: The post-civil war records of dog bite injuries (DBI) and rabies-like-illness (RLI) among humans in Liberia is a vital epidemiological resource for developing a predictive model to guide the allocation of resources towards human rabies control. Whereas DBI and RLI are high, they are largely under-reported. The objective of this study was to develop a time model of the case-pattern and apply it to derive predictors of time-trend point distribution of DBI-RLI cases. METHODS: A retrospective 6 years data of DBI distribution among humans countrywide were converted to quarterly series using a transformation technique of Minimizing Squared First Difference statistic. The generated dataset was used to train a time-trend model of the DBI-RLI syndrome in Liberia. An additive detenninistic time-trend model was selected due to its performance compared to multiplication model of trend and seasonal movement. Parameter predictors were run on least square method to predict DBI cases for a prospective 4 years period, covering 2014-2017. RESULTS: The two-stage predictive model of DBI case-pattern between 2014 and 2017 was characterised by a uniform upward trend within Liberia's coastal and hinterland Counties over the forecast period. CONCLUSION: This paper describes a translational application of the time-trend distribution pattern of DBI epidemics, 2008-2013 reported in Liberia, on which a predictive model was developed. A computationally feasible two-stage time-trend permutation approach is proposed to estimate the time-trend parameters and conduct predictive inference on DBI-RLI in Liberia.

Mapping of Mycobacterium tuberculosis cases in post-conflict Liberia, 2008-2012: A descriptive and categorical analysis of age, gender and seasonal pattern.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health. problem in Liberia and it is among the first five most important infectious diseases. Fourteen years of civil war in Liberia caused a large internal displacement and external migration of its citizens to neighbouring countries such as Guinea, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone, Ghana and Nigeria. Current spatio-temporal pattern of TB cases in Liberia is essential for identifying risk factors among humans for optimal resource allocation. METHODS: Surveillance data from January, 2008 to December, 2012 were retrieved from two national TB referral hospitals in the country: TB Annex Hospital (TBAH) (Montserrado County) and Ganta TB and Leprosy Rehabilitation Hospital (GTBLRH) (Nimba County). Geographic coordinates of TB patient's locations were captured based on records in the hospital case-files using Global Positioning System (GPS). The coordinates were mapped using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software. Data on age, gender, date of illness, dry and wet season frequency were used to compute a descriptive and categorical analysis. Kulldorff's spatio-temporal scan statistic was used to identify clusters of TB in the two Counties. RESULTS: A total of 2,890 laboratory-confirmed cases were reported during the study period. There were 1,365 (47.23%) and 1,525 (52.77%) cases from TBAH and GTBLRH respectively. The mean age of patient was 45.19 years ± 19.49 (SD). Of this, 1,450 (50.17%) were male. There was significant association between year of TB occurrence and treatment outcome (χ2 = 14.38; p = 0.006). CONCLUSION: The paper presents TB spatial pattern, summarizing 5-year records of post-conflict surveillance of the disease in Liberia.

Detection of haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies against human H1 and H3 strains of influenza A viruses in pigs in Ibadan, Nigeria.

Agricultural and commercial activities have continued to bring people and pigs into regular, close contact in Ibadan, Nigeria. This study was therefore designed to investigate the transmission of human influenza viruses to pigs in Ibadan, using serological surveillance. Serum specimens were collected from ninety-one (91/199) apparently healthy, unvaccinated Landrace pigs at three locations within Ibadan from April to June, 2008. Two strains of human influenza virus A: A/Brisbane/59/2007 (H1N1) and A/Brisbane/10/2007 (H3N2) were used in Haemagglutination-Inhibition Assay for antibody detection. Prevalence of HI antibodies to the two subtypes was 90.1%. Antibodies to influenza A/Brisbane/59/2007 (H1N1) were significantly (P < 0.05) more prevalent (80.2%) than those of influenza A/Brisbane/10/2007 (H3N2) (51.6%). Titres of HI antibodies to influenza A/Brisbane/59/2007 [mean = 3331.5] were significantly higher (P < 0.05) than those of influenza A/Brisbane/10/2007 [mean = 2212.3]. This study shows that these pigs were exposed to human strains of influenza A(H1N1) and A(H3N2) either prior to or during this study. The implications of these high prevalence and antibody titres are discussed in relation to influenza virus infection among pig handlers in Ibadan, Nigeria. We recommend that periodic investigation of circulating strains of influenza viruses in pigs and humans who handle pigs regularly in Nigeria and molecular characterization of such isolates be carried out to ensure early detection of interspecies transmission and potential future pandemic strains.

Analysis and evaluation of mortality losses of the 2001 African swine fever outbreak, Ibadan, Nigeria.

The mortality losses of pigs of various age groups affected by the 2001 African swine fever outbreak in Ibadan Nigeria were analyzed and evaluated. Thirty one thousand nine hundred and sixteen (31,916) pigs on three hundred and six (306) farms reported by the Pig Farmers Association of Nigeria and the State Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources were involved. Gross mortality was ninety one percent (91%), while age group mortality ranged from 75.9% (growers), 83.1% (weaners), 91.2% (finishers) and 99.8% (piglets); to 100.0% in gilts, sow and boars. Losses were estimated to worth nine hundred and forty one thousand, four hundred and ninety one dollars, sixty seven cents (US $941, 491.67). Highest financial loss was from sows (29.5% of total loss), followed by gilts (16.6%), finishers (15.2%), weaners (10.7%), boars (10.6%), growers (10.6%) and piglets (8.2%). Average mortality loss per farm of $3076.77 was of great financial and socioeconomic consequences for a developing country like Nigeria with a low Gross Domestic Product figures. In conclusion, the need to immediately revisit and take recommended actions on the 1998 Report of the FAO Consultancy Mission to Nigeria on Control and Eradication of an Outbreak of African swine fever in Western Nigeria is stressed.