Lipids and Secretory Vesicle Exocytosis.

In recent years, the number of studies implicating lipids in the regulation of synaptic vesicle exocytosis has risen considerably. It has become increasingly clear that lipids such as phosphoinositides, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, arachidonic acid and myristic acid play critical regulatory roles in the processes leading up to exocytosis. Lipids may affect membrane fusion reactions by altering the physical properties of the membrane, recruiting key regulatory proteins, concentrating proteins into exocytic "hotspots" or by modulating protein functions allosterically. Discrete changes in phosphoinositides concentration are involved in multiple trafficking events including exocytosis and endocytosis. Lipid-modifying enzymes such as the DDHD2 isoform of phospholipase A1 were recently shown to contribute to memory acquisition via dynamic modifications of the brain lipid landscape. Considering the increasing reports on neurodegenerative disorders associated with aberrant intracellular trafficking, an improved understanding of the control of lipid pathways is physiologically and clinically significant and will afford unique insights into mechanisms and therapeutic methods for neurodegenerative diseases. Consequently, this chapter will discuss the different classes of lipids, phospholipase enzymes, the evidence linking them to synaptic neurotransmitter release and how they act to regulate key steps in the multi-step process leading to neuronal communication and memory acquisition.

Inhibition of PIKfyve by YM-201636 dysregulates autophagy and leads to apoptosis-independent neuronal cell death.

The lipid phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(3,5)P 2), synthesised by PIKfyve, regulates a number of intracellular membrane trafficking pathways. Genetic alteration of the PIKfyve complex, leading to even a mild reduction in PtdIns(3,5)P 2, results in marked neurodegeneration via an uncharacterised mechanism. In the present study we have shown that selectively inhibiting PIKfyve activity, using YM-201636, significantly reduces the survival of primary mouse hippocampal neurons in culture. YM-201636 treatment promoted vacuolation of endolysosomal membranes followed by apoptosis-independent cell death. Many vacuoles contained intravacuolar membranes and inclusions reminiscent of autolysosomes. Accordingly, YM-201636 treatment increased the level of the autophagosomal marker protein LC3-II, an effect that was potentiated by inhibition of lysosomal proteases, suggesting that alterations in autophagy could be a contributing factor to neuronal cell death.

Phosphoinositides in neuroexocytosis and neuronal diseases.

Phosphoinositides (PIs) are a family of phospholipids derived from phosphatidylinositol (PtdIns), whose location, synthesis, and degradation depend on specific PI kinases and phosphatases. PIs have emerged as fundamental regulators of secretory processes, such as neurotransmitter release, hormone secretion, and histamine release in allergic responses. In neurons and neuroendocrine cells, regulated secretion requires the calcium-dependent fusion of transmitter-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane. The role played by PIs in exocytosis is best exemplified by the Ca²âº-dependent binding of vesicular Synaptotagmin1 to the plasma membrane PtdIns(4,5)P2, and the recently demonstrated role of PtdIns(4,5)P2 in the mobilization of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane. New evidence has also recently emerged of an alternative PI pathway that can control exocytosis positively (via PtdIn3P) or negatively (via PtdIns(3,5)P2). However, the positive or negative effectors for these pathways remain to be established. Reducing PtdIns(3,5)P2 potentiates neuroexocytosis but leads to neuronal degeneration and has been linked to certain forms of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The goal of this review is to describe the role of PIs in neuroexocytosis and explore the current hypotheses linking these effects to human diseases.

Phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate coordinates actin-mediated mobilization and translocation of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane of chromaffin cells.

Neurosecretory vesicles undergo docking and priming before Ca(2+)-dependent fusion with the plasma membrane. Although de novo synthesis of phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P(2)) is required for exocytosis, its precise contribution is still unclear. Here we show that inhibition of the p110δ isoform of PI3-kinase by IC87114 promotes a transient increase in PtdIns(4,5)P(2), leading to a potentiation of exocytosis in chromaffin cells. We then exploit this pathway to examine the effect of a transient PtdIns(4,5)P(2) increase on neurosecretory vesicles behaviour, outside the context of a secretagogue stimulation. Our results demonstrate that a rise in PtdIns(4,5)P(2) is sufficient to promote the mobilization and recruitment of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane via Cdc42-mediated actin reorganization. PtdIns(4,5)P(2), therefore, orchestrates the actin-based conveyance of secretory vesicles to the plasma membrane.

Regioselective approach to phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphates: syntheses of the native phospholipid and biotinylated short-chain derivative.

A selective bis-silylation of 1D-O-TBDPS-myo-inositol leads to a 1,3,5-trisubstituted inositol, which can be advanced to the headgroup of phosphatidylinositol-3,5-bisphosphate [PI(3,5)P(2)]. A mild, regioselective method for construction of the diacylglycerol moiety containing differing fatty acid chains, including the naturally occurring lipids, was developed. Their union in the synthesis of the cell-signaling molecule PI(3,5)P(2) containing the sn-1-stearoyl and sn-2-arachidonoyl groups is described. The methodology was also used to generate dioctanoyl-PI(3,5)P(2) and a previously unreported biotin-PI(3,5)P(2) conjugate, which was coupled to neutravidin beads and used to pull down PI(3,5)P(2)-binding proteins from the cytosolic extract of adrenal neurosecretory cells. We report the specific pull-down of the PI(3,5)P(2)-binding protein svp1p, a known PI(3,5)P(2) effector involved in membrane trafficking.

Abrogating Munc18-1-SNARE complex interaction has limited impact on exocytosis in PC12 cells.

Neuronal communication relies on the fusion of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles with the plasma membrane. The soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor (SNARE) proteins initiate membrane fusion through the formation of the SNARE complex, a process tightly regulated by Sec1/Munc18-1 (SM) proteins. The emerging trend is that SM proteins promote SNARE-mediated membrane fusion by binding to a Syntaxin N-terminal motif. Here we report that mutations in the hydrophobic pocket of Munc18-1 (F115E and E132A), predicted to disrupt the N-terminal Sx1a interaction have a modest effect on binding to Sx1a in its free state, but abolish binding to the SNARE complex. Overexpression of the Munc18-1 mutant in PC12 cells lacking Munc18-1 rescues both neuroexocytosis and the plasma membrane localization of Syntaxin. However, total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy analysis reveals that expression of a Munc18-1 double mutant reduces the rate of vesicle fusion, an effect only detectable at the onset of stimulation. The Munc18-1 hydrophobic pocket is therefore critical for SNARE complex binding. However, mutations abrogating this interaction have a limited impact on Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis in PC12 cells.

Ca2+-regulated pool of phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate produced by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase C2alpha on neurosecretory vesicles.

Phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate [PtdIns(3)P] is a key player in early endosomal trafficking and is mainly produced by class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K). In neurosecretory cells, class II PI3K-C2alpha and its lipid product PtdIns(3)P have recently been shown to play a critical role during neuroexocytosis, suggesting that two distinct pools of PtdIns(3)P might coexist in these cells. However, the precise characterization of this additional pool of PtdIns(3)P remains to be established. Using a selective PtdIns(3)P probe, we have identified a novel PtdIns(3)P-positive pool localized on secretory vesicles, sensitive to PI3K-C2alpha knockdown and relatively resistant to wortmannin treatment. In neurosecretory cells, stimulation of exocytosis promoted a transient albeit large increase in PtdIns(3)P production localized on secretory vesicles sensitive to PI3K-C2alpha knockdown and expression of PI3K-C2alpha catalytically inactive mutant. Using purified chromaffin granules, we found that PtdIns(3)P production is controlled by Ca(2+). We confirmed that PtdIns(3)P production from recombinantly expressed PI3K-C2alpha is indeed regulated by Ca(2+). We provide evidence that a dynamic pool of PtdIns(3)P synthesized by PI3K-C2alpha occurs on secretory vesicles in neurosecretory cells, demonstrating that the activity of a member of the PI3K family is regulated by Ca(2+) in vitro and in living neurosecretory cells.

p75 neurotrophin receptor mediates neuronal cell death by activating GIRK channels through phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate.

The pan neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR) signals programmed cell death both during nervous system development and after neural trauma and disease in the adult. However, the molecular pathways by which death is mediated remain poorly understood. Here, we show that this cell death is initiated by activation of G-protein-coupled inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK/Kir3) channels and a consequent potassium efflux. Death signals stimulated by neurotrophin-mediated cleavage of p75(NTR) activate GIRK channels through the generation and binding of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PtdIns(4,5)P2/PIP2] to GIRK channels. Both GIRK channel activity and p75(NTR)-mediated neuronal death are inhibited by sequestration of PtdIns(4,5)P2 and application of GIRK channel inhibitors, whereas pertussis toxin treatment has no effect. Thus, p75(NTR) activates GIRK channels without the need for G(i/o)-proteins. Our results demonstrate a novel mode of activation of GIRK channels, representing an early step in the p75(NTR)-mediated cell death pathway and suggesting a function for these channels during nervous system development.

PIKfyve negatively regulates exocytosis in neurosecretory cells.

Regulated secretion depends upon a highly coordinated series of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions. Two phosphoinositides, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate and phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, are important for the ATP-dependent priming of the secretory apparatus prior to Ca(2+)-dependent exocytosis. Mechanisms that control phosphoinositide levels are likely to play an important role in priming fine tuning. Here we have investigated the involvement of PIKfyve, a phosphoinositide 5-kinase that can phosphorylate phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate to produce phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate on large dense core vesicle exocytosis from neuroendocrine cells. PIKfyve localizes to a subpopulation of secretory granules in chromaffin and PC12 cells. Nicotine stimulation promoted recruitment of PIKfyve-EGFP onto secretory vesicles in PC12 cells. YM-201636, a selective inhibitor of PIKfyve activity, and PIKfyve knockdown by small interfering RNA potentiated secretory granule exocytosis. Overexpression of PIKfyve or its yeast orthologue Fab1p inhibited regulated secretion in PC12 cells, whereas a catalytically inactive PIKfyve mutant had no effect. These results demonstrate a novel inhibitory role for PIKfyve catalytic activity in regulated secretion and provide further evidence for a fine tuning of exocytosis by 3-phosphorylated phosphoinositides.

Identification of secretory granule phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate-interacting proteins using an affinity pulldown strategy.

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) synthesis is required for calcium-dependent exocytosis in neurosecretory cells. We developed a PtdIns(4,5)P2 bead pulldown strategy combined with subcellular fractionation to identify endogenous chromaffin granule proteins that interact with PtdIns(4,5)P2. We identified two synaptotagmin isoforms, synaptotagmins 1 and 7; spectrin; alpha-adaptin; and synaptotagmin-like protein 4 (granuphilin) by mass spectrometry and Western blotting. The interaction between synaptotagmin 7 and PtdIns(4,5)P2 and its functional relevance was investigated. The 45-kDa isoform of synaptotagmin 7 was found to be highly expressed in adrenal chromaffin cells compared with PC12 cells and to mainly localize to secretory granules by subcellular fractionation, immunoisolation, and immunocytochemistry. We demonstrated that synaptotagmin 7 binds PtdIns(4,5)P2 via the C2B domain in the absence of calcium and via both the C2A and C2B domains in the presence of calcium. We mutated the polylysine stretch in synaptotagmin 7 C2B and demonstrated that this mutant domain lacks the calcium-independent PtdIns(4,5)P2 binding. Synaptotagmin 7 C2B domain inhibited catecholamine release from digitonin-permeabilized chromaffin cells, and this inhibition was abrogated with the C2B polylysine mutant. These data indicate that synaptotagmin 7 C2B-effector interactions, which occur via the polylysine stretch, including calcium-independent PtdIns(4,5)P2 binding, are important for chromaffin granule exocytosis.

The Janus faces of botulinum neurotoxin: sensational medicine and deadly biological weapon.

The botulinum neurotoxins are the most dangerous toxins known (BoNTs serotypes A-G) and induce profound flaccid neuromuscular paralysis by blocking nerve-muscle communication. Poisoned motoneurons react by emitting a sprouting network known to establish novel functional synapses with the abutting muscle fiber. Understanding how our motoneurons are capable of bypassing such transmission blockade, thereby overcoming paralysis, by an astonishing display of plasticity is one of the research goals that have numerous therapeutic ramifications. This Mini-Review aims at giving a brief update on the recent discoveries regarding the molecular mechanism of botulinum toxins intoxication. Curing botulism still is a challenge once the toxin has found his way inside motoneurons. In view of the potential use of botulinum toxins as biological weapon, more research is needed to find efficient ways of curing this disease.

Arachidonic acid potentiates exocytosis and allows neuronal SNARE complex to interact with Munc18a.

Neuronal communication relies on the fusion of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles with the neuronal plasma membrane. Recent genetic studies have highlighted the critical role played by polyunsaturated fatty acids in neurotransmission, however, there is little information available about which fatty acids act on exocytosis and, more importantly, by what mechanism. We have used permeabilized chromaffin cells to screen various fatty acids of the n-3 and n-6 series for their acute effects on exocytosis. We have demonstrated that an n-6 series polyunsaturated fatty acid, arachidonic acid, potentiates secretion from intact neurosecretory cells regardless of the secretagogue used. We have shown that arachidonic acid dose dependently increases soluble NSF attachment protein receptor complex formation in chromaffin cells and bovine cortical brain extracts and that a non-hydrolysable analogue of arachidonic acid causes a similar increase in SNARE complex formation. This prompted us to examine the effect of arachidonic acid on SNARE protein interactions with Munc18a, a protein known to prevent Syntaxin1a engagement into the SNARE complex in vitro. In the presence of arachidonic acid, we show that Munc18a can interact with the neuronal SNARE complex in a dose-dependent manner. We further demonstrate that arachidonic acid directly interacts with Syntaxin1a.

Phosphoinositide regulation of neuroexocytosis: adding to the complexity.

Exocytosis of neurotransmitter containing vesicles supports neuronal communication. The importance of molecular interactions involving specific lipids has become progressively more evident and the lipid composition of both the synaptic vesicle and the pre-synaptic plasma membrane at the active zone has significant functional consequences for neurotransmitter release. Several classes of lipids have been implicated in exocytosis including polyunsaturated fatty acids and phosphoinositides. This minireview will focus on recent developments regarding the role of phosphoinositides in neurosecretion.

Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase C2alpha is essential for ATP-dependent priming of neurosecretory granule exocytosis.

Neurotransmitter release and hormonal secretion are highly regulated processes culminating in the calcium-dependent fusion of secretory vesicles with the plasma membrane. Here, we have identified a role for phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase C2alpha (PI3K-C2alpha) and its main catalytic product, PtdIns3P, in regulated exocytosis. In neuroendocrine cells, PI3K-C2alpha is present on a subpopulation of mature secretory granules. Impairment of PI3K-C2alpha function specifically inhibits the ATP-dependent priming phase of exocytosis. Overexpression of wild-type PI3K-C2alpha enhanced secretion, whereas transfection of PC12 cells with a catalytically inactive PI3K-C2alpha mutant or a 2xFYVE domain sequestering PtdIns3P abolished secretion. Based on these results, we propose that production of PtdIns3P by PI3K-C2alpha is required for acquisition of fusion competence in neurosecretion.