Plectin defects in epidermolysis bullosa simplex with muscular dystrophy.

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex with muscular dystrophy (EBS-MD, MIM 226670) is caused by plectin defects. We performed mutational analysis and immunohistochemistry using EBS-MD (n = 3 cases) and control skeletal muscle to determine pathogenesis. Mutational analysis revealed a novel homozygous plectin-exon32 rod domain mutation (R2465X). All plectin/HD1-121 antibodies stained the control skeletal muscle membrane. However, plectin antibodies stained the cytoplasm of type II control muscle fibers (as confirmed by ATPase staining), whereas HD1-121 stained the cytoplasm of type I fibers. EBS-MD samples lacked membrane (n = 3) but retained cytoplasmic HD1-121 (n = 1) and plectin staining in type II fibers (n = 3). Ultrastructurally, EBS-MD demonstrated widening and vacuolization adjacent to the membrane and disorganization of Z-lines (n = 2 of 3) compared to controls (n = 5). Control muscle immunogold labeling colocalized plectin and desmin to filamentous bridges between Z-lines and the membrane that were disrupted in EBS-MD muscle. We conclude that fiber-specific plectin expression is associated with the desmin-cytoskeleton, Z-lines, and crucially myocyte membrane linkage, analogous to hemidesmosomes in skin.

Expression of plectin in muscle fibers with cytoarchitectural abnormalities.

Plectin is a protein belonging to the cytoskeletal anchoring system, concentrated at sites of mechanical stress in different cell types. In normal skeletal muscle, plectin is located at level of Z-discs, sarcolemma, post-synaptic membrane, and intermyofibrillar network. We investigated plectin immunocytochemistry in lobulated fibers, fibers with tubular aggregates, target fibers, central core disease and centronuclear myopathy. Thirty to forty percent of lobulated fibers had patchy increase of plectin immunoreactivity at sarcolemmal level with focal subsarcolemmal increases. Tubular aggregates revealed a low binding for plectin. Ten percent of central cores exhibited faint focal increase of plectin immunoreactivity. Target formations had a normal plectin pattern. In centronuclear myopathy, plectin immunoreactivity was increased around the centrally located nuclei in 8-12% of the fibers, at the sarcolemma of 50% of type 2 fibers, and at the membrane of small vacuoles located peripherally around the central nuclei. We postulate that plectin may play a role in the subsarcolemmal aggregation of mitochondria in the lobulated fibers, and in the central position of nuclei as well as in shape formation, positioning and moving of the vacuoles in centronuclear myopathy.

Transient translocation of hemidesmosomal bullous pemphigoid antigen 1 from cytosol to membrane fractions by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate treatment and Ca2+-switch in a human carcinoma cell line.

We previously showed that 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) and Ca2+-switch from low (0.07 mM) to normal (1.87 mM) concentration in culture medium, which were also linked to activation of protein kinase C (PKC), lead to phosphorylation of 180 kDa-bullous pemphigoid antigen (BPAG) 2, but not of 230 kDa-BPAG1, and possibly to its disassembly from hemidesmosomes in a human squamous cell carcinoma cell line (DJM-1). In this study, we examined the effects of TPA and Ca2+-switch on intracellular localization of BPAG1 by immuno-blotting and immuno-fluorescence microscopy with monoclonal antibodies to the antigen after sub-cellular fractionation. In DJM-1 cells cultured in low Ca2+ medium, BPAG1 was detected as phosphate buffered saline-soluble (cytosolic), Triton X-100 soluble (roughly membrane-associated) and Triton X-100 insoluble (cytoskeleton-bound) forms, whereas in normal Ca2+-grown cells only as cytosolic and cytoskeleton-bound forms. In normal Ca2+-cultured cells, TPA (50 nM) caused a complete translocation of BPAG1 from cytosol to membrane fractions within 10 min, that was inhibited by pretreatment with H7 (a selective PKC inhibitor) at 40 microM. After 30 min and 4 h of TPA-treatment, BPAG1 was exclusively detected in cytoskeleton fractions. Morphologically, immuno-fluorescence microscopy showed that treatment caused a marked reduction of BPAG1 from the cytoplasm and generated a linear pattern at cell-cell contacts, suggesting translocation of BPAG1 from the cytosol to the plasma membrane. In contrast, the Ca2+-switch from low to normal caused a prominent increase of BPAG1, both in cytosolic and membrane-associated forms after 4 h, that was inhibited both with H7 and cycloheximide (an inhibitor of protein synthesis) at 70 microM, suggesting a role for PKC and BPAG1 synthesis in these Ca2+-induced effects. These results suggest that TPA and Ca2+-switch induced BPAG1 translocation to membrane fractions possibly mediated by PKC-activation. Furthermore, whereas TPA affects the redistribution of BPAG1 among their pools without inducing their synthesis, Ca2+-switch induces both membrane translocation and synthesis of BPAG1, suggesting involvement of signaling other than PKC pathways in control of BPAG1 synthesis.

The dento-epithelial junction: cell adhesion by type I hemidesmosomes in the absence of a true basal lamina.

BACKGROUND: The junctional epithelium (JE) is a unique structure that makes contact with both a non-renewable hard tooth surface and with a basement membrane (BM) facing the connective tissue. Ultrastructurally, this attachment occurs through hemidesmosomes (HD) and a basal lamina-like extracellular matrix which, on the tooth side, is termed the internal basal lamina. In this study we investigated the expression of basal cell markers in the tooth-facing (TF) cells of JE. METHODS: Samples of healthy marginal gingiva were removed by careful dissection. The expression of laminin-5 was used to indicate TF cell preservation in double immunofluorescence labeling and confocal laser scanning microscopy. RESULTS: The results show that integrin alpha6beta4 and laminin-5 colocalize unequivocally in the TF cells. The results also show the specific expression of the basal cytokeratin 14 and the alpha(v) integrin subunit in the TF cells. All 3 major hemidesmosomal components BP180, BP230, and HD1 antigen are likewise present. On the other hand, type IV collagen, laminin-1/10, type VII collagen, and the BM proteoglycan perlecan are all absent from the dento-epithelial junction. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the epithelium-tooth interface is a unique structure wherein epithelial cells adhere by means of bona fide hemidesmosomes to an epithelium-derived extracellular matrix lacking most of the common BM components. Moreover, TF cells differ from connective tissue facing (CTF) cells, not only by their cell surface molecules and their production of extracellular matrix, but also by their cytoskeletal architecture.

A homozygous nonsense mutation in type XVII collagen gene (COL17A1) uncovers an alternatively spliced mRNA accounting for an unusually mild form of non-Herlitz junctional epidermolysis bullosa.

In this study we describe six Italian patients presenting an unusually mild variant of non-Herlitz junctional epidermolysis bullosa associated with a reduced expression of type XVII collagen. All patients are homozygous for a novel nonsense mutation (R795X) within exon 33 of COL17A1 and show a common haplotype, attesting propagation of an ancestral allele within the Italian population. Analysis of patients' COL17A1 transcripts showed the presence of two mRNA species: a normal-sized mRNA carrying mutation R795X that undergoes rapid decay, and a transcript generated by in-frame skipping of exon 33. Patients keratinocytes were shown to synthesize minute amounts of type XVII collagen, which appeared correctly localized along the cutaneous basement membrane. We therefore suggest that the exon 33-deleted COL17A1 splice variant encodes for type XVII collagen molecules that maintain a functional role and account for the mild phenotype of our patients.

The extracellular domain of BPAG2 has a loop structure in the carboxy terminal flexible tail in vivo.

The 180 kDa bullous pemphigoid antigen is a hemidesmosome-associated transmembranous protein with a molecule length estimated to be 190-230 nm, which is much longer than the transverse length of the lamina lucida and lamina densa. The purpose of this study was to clarify the precise in vivo structure of the 180 kDa bullous pemphigoid antigen in normal human skin. We used three monoclonal antibodies directed to (i) the intracellular globular head of the 180 kDa bullous pemphigoid antigen, (ii) the mid-portion of the flexible tail of the antigen, corresponding approximately to amino acids 1000-1320, and (iii) the carboxyl terminal end, corresponding approximately to amino acids 1320-1500 of the antigen. Using low temperature postembedding immunoelectron microscopy, we quantitated the distribution of immunogold labeling of these monoclonal antibodies in normal human skin. The results showed that the monoclonal antibodies (i) bound to the intracellular portion of the hemidesmosome at a mean distance of 20 nm from the plasma membrane, (ii) bound to the lamina densa beneath the hemidesmosome at a mean distance of 65 nm from the plasma membrane, and (iii) bound to the lamina densa-lamina lucida interface at a mean distance of 39 nm from the plasma membrane. Considering the reported size of the 180 kDa bullous pemphigoid antigen, our results indicate that the extracellular domain of the antigen has at least one loop structure in the lamina densa in vivo. This unique structure of the antigen is thought to contribute to dermo- epidermal adhesion by intertwining with other basement membrane components.

Cultured keratinocytes from plectin/HD1-deficient epidermolysis bullosa simplex showed altered ability of adhesion to the matrix.

Epidermolysis bullosa simplex associated with late onset of muscular dystrophy has been found to show defective expression of plectin, an intracytoplasmic protein in hemidesmosomes. In this report, we examined ability of cell-to-matrix attachment of cultured keratinocytes derived from a case with this disease by various cell biological methods, and compared it to that of normal keratinocytes. In cell adhesion assay, the patient keratinocytes showed more prominent short-time cell adhesion than normal keratinocytes. In contrast, the patient keratinocytes could be detached much easier than normal keratinocytes in cell detachment assay by treatment with dispase. In phagokinetic track assay, no apparent difference of cell migration was observed between the patient and normal keratinocytes. These results indicate that plectin-deficiency may up-regulate short-term cell contact and reduce stable cell-matrix adhesion at the epidermal basement membrane zone.

Re-epithelialization rate and protein expression in the suction-induced wound model: comparison between intact blisters, open wounds and calcipotriol-pretreated open wounds.

We have investigated re-epithelialization following induction of suction blisters in humans in intact blisters, open wounds, i.e. blister roofs removed immediately after blister induction, and calcipotriol-pretreated open wounds. Intact blisters simulate blister healing in bullous disease, while open wounds simulate re-epithelialization during wound healing. Re-epithelialization was clearly faster in open wounds than in intact blisters, and was not affected by calcipotriol pretreatment. Bullous pemphigoid antigen 2 (BP180), bullous pemphigoid antigen 1 (BP230), plectin/hemidesmosomal 1 protein (HD1), laminin 5, laminin alpha5, laminin beta1, type VII collagen, tenascin-C, beta4, alphavbeta5, alpha5 and alpha9 integrins were studied in intact blisters and open wounds by immunohistochemistry. Hemidesmosomal plaque proteins BP230 and plectin/HD1, which connect the keratin cytoskeleton to the hemidesmosome, appeared earlier at the leading edge in intact blisters than in open wounds. Band-like immunostaining in the basement membrane for laminin 5, alpha5 and beta1 chains was continuous in blister bases, but partially discontinuous in open wound bases. The other antigens studied showed similar expression in intact blisters and open wounds. BP180, BP230, plectin/HD1, beta4 integrin, laminin 5 and tenascin-C expression were further studied in calcipotriol-pretreated open wounds. Calcipotriol did not affect the expression of these antigens. The immunohistochemical results suggest that the keratin cytoskeleton is linked to the basal plasma membrane of migrating basal cells via BP230 and plectin/HD1 earlier in the more slowly re-epithelializing blisters than in open wounds. An intact laminin sheath may inhibit keratinocyte migration in intact blisters.

Identification of the hemidesmosomal 500 kDa protein (HD1) as plectin.

HD1 is a 500 kDa hemidesmosomal plaque protein recognized by monoclonal antibody mAb-121. Recent research on inherited skin disease has suggested that it might be identical to plectin or an isoform. To cast light on this question, we have prepared several monoclonal antibodies that recognize a 500 kDa protein in the hemidesmosome fraction. Unexpectedly, some staining pattern heterogeneity was observed on immunofluorescence microscopy. Attention was focused on two monoclonal antibodies which gave different localization in bovine skin and retinal pigment epithelial cells. Determination of the amino-terminal sequence of an antigenic 100 kDa polypeptide fragment derived from the 500 kDa component of an insoluble fraction of bovine hepatocytes revealed it was identical to that of plectin. Using the two antibodies, we screened a cDNA library derived from BMGE+H, a bovine mammary gland epithelial cell line. The isolated cDNA clones corresponded to the rod domain of bovine plectin, with two separate epitope regions for each of the antibodies. From these results we conclude that the hemidesmosomal 500 kDa component HD1 is identical to plectin. As judged on rough estimation of molar ratios on this basis, hemidesmosomes are composed of plectin, BP230, the integrin beta4 subunit, and alpha6 in a 1:1:1:1 ratio.

Expression of plectin and HD1 epitopes in patients with epidermolysis bullosa simplex associated with muscular dystrophy.

Plectin, a widespread cytoskeletal linker protein, is prominently expressed in basal keratinocytes of the epidermis. HD1, originally identified as a hemidesmosomal protein, has been suggested to be an isoform of or closely related to plectin, but the exact relationship between these proteins is unknown. Plectin has recently been identified as the gene/protein system at fault in epidermolysis bullosa simplex associated with muscular dystrophy (EBS-MD; OMIM# 226670). In this study, we examined the expression patterns of plectin and HD1 epitopes in the skin of four unrelated patients with EBS-MD confirmed to be caused by plectin gene mutations. By indirect immunofluorescence, all monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to plectin (5B3, 10F6) or to HD1 (121, E2, K15, 156) bound to the epidermal basement membrane zone (BMZ) of normal human skin. In addition, immunostaining along the periphery of keratinocytes was detected with mAbs 5B3, 10F6 (antiplectin), K15 and 156 (anti-HD1), but not with mAbs 121 and E2 (anti-HD1). Immunolabeling for mAbs 5B3 and 10F6 (antiplectin) was absent in the skin of three patients who had premature termination codon mutations in the plectin gene in both alleles. In contrast, labeling was only slightly reduced in a patient who was homozygous for a 9-bp in-frame deletion mutation in the same gene. Interestingly, peripheral labeling of keratinocytes using mAbs K15 and 156 (anti-HD1) was clearly present in all the patients despite the disappearance of BMZ labeling. Quantitative analysis by postembedding immunoelectron microscopy demonstrated that both plectin and HD1 epitopes were localized in the inner plaque of hemidesmosomes with a mean distance of 110 and 120 nm from the plasma membrane, respectively. These results confirm the molecular heterogeneity of EBS-MD in terms of the expression patterns of plectin and HD1 epitopes which correlate with clinical severity, the pattern of plectin gene mutations and their consequences.

Hemidesmosomal molecular changes in dermatitis herpetiformis; decreased expression of BP230 and plectin/HD1 in uninvolved skin.

Recent BP230-knockout experiments with subsequent blistering and recently identified plectin/HD1 mutations in epidermolysis bullosa simplex patients suggest that defective expression of BP230 and plectin/HD1 may predispose to blister formation in human skin. We have studied the expression of the epithelial adhesion complex as well as the basement membrane and anchoring fibril antigens in uninvolved dermatitis herpetiformis skin to find out if alterations can be detected in these structures predisposing to the blister formation typical of the disease. Ten uninvolved dermatitis herpetiformis skin specimens, which all showed clear granular deposits of IgA under the basement membrane in direct immunofluorescence and five normal skin specimens, were studied by indirect immunofluorescence technique. Six uninvolved dermatitis herpetiformis skin specimens showed distinctly decreased immunoreaction for BP230 and four uninvolved dermatitis herpetiformis skin specimens showed distinctly decreased immunoreaction for plectin/HD1. All five skin controls showed strong immunoreactions for BP230 and plectin/HD1. Other hemidesmosomal proteins including BP180 and integrin alpha6beta4, as well as basement membrane proteins laminin-5, laminin-1, nidogen and type IV collagen, and the anchoring fibril protein type VII collagen showed a normal strong expression. Our results suggest that alterations in BP230 and plectin/HD1 may contribute or predispose to blister formation in dermatitis herpetiformis skin.

Human autoantibodies against HD1/plectin in paraneoplastic pemphigus.

Paraneoplastic pemphigus (PNP) is an autoimmune blistering disease that occurs in association with underlying neoplasms. PNP patients develop characteristic autoantibodies directed against multiple antigens, mostly identified as members of the plakin family of cytoplasmic proteins (desmoplakin I and II, bullous pemphigoid antigen I, envoplakin, and periplakin). HD1/plectin, another member of the plakin family, has not previously been detected in the characteristic PNP antigen complex, which may relate to practical difficulties associated with its large size (molecular weight approximately 500 kDa). In this study, a combination of immunoprecipitation and immunoblot is used to demonstrate that HD1/plectin is also recognized by sera from PNP patients. Thirteen of 16 PNP sera tested were positive for HD1/plectin compared with none of 43 control sera (11 pemphigus vulgaris, 11 pemphigus foliaceus, 11 bullous pemphigoid, and 10 normal individuals). Combined with our recent finding that desmoglein 3 and desmoglein 1 are cell surface target antigens in PNP, this demonstration of plectin/HD1 as another component of the antigen complex in PNP confirms that PNP is an autoimmune disease against desmoglein and plakin family molecules.

Hemidesmosomes and their unique transmembrane protein BP180.

Hemidesmosomes are adhesion complexes responsible for linking keratin intermediate filaments of stratified and complex epithelia to components of the extracellular matrix such as collagen fibrils. Over the past several years, it has become clear that there are at least five hemidesmosomal proteins, including HD1/plectin and BP230 as cytoplasmic plaque proteins and integrin alpha6beta4 and BP180 as transmembrane proteins. Among them, BP180 is unique as a transmembrane protein because of its collagenous extracellular domain. Recent biochemical and ultrastructural analyses have revealed its molecular configuration and nature as a major component of anchoring filaments connecting hemidesmosomes to the basement membrane. These results indicate that BP180 is a new type of adhesion receptor. In addition to biochemical analyses of these hemidesmosomal proteins, recent studies on patients with inherited skin blistering diseases and on knockout mice have demonstrated roles in hemidesmosome formation and stabilization, as well as unexpected, novel functions.

Novel homozygous and compound heterozygous COL17A1 mutations associated with junctional epidermolysis bullosa.

Junctional epidermolysis bullosa is a heritable, heterogeneous blistering skin disease with mechanically induced dermal-epidermal separation, mild skin atrophy, nail dystrophy, and alopecia. Four unrelated junctional epidermolysis bullosa families with different phenotypes were investigated here and four novel mutations associated with the disease were identified. Patients 1, 2, and 3 had generalized atrophic benign epidermolysis bullosa, with nonscarring blistering and varying degree of alopecia. Patient 4 had the localisata variant of junctional epidermolysis bullosa, with predominantly acral blistering and normal hair. All patients had mutations in the COL17A1 gene encoding collagen XVII, a hemidesmosomal transmembrane protein. Patients 1 and 2 carried homozygous deletions 520delAG and 2965delG, respectively. Patient 3 was compound heterozygous for a missense and a deletion mutation (G539E and 2666delTT), and patient 4 was heterozygous for a known mutation R1226X. The deletions led to premature termination codons and to drastically reduced collagen XVII mRNA and protein levels, consistent with the absence of the collagen in generalized atrophic benign epidermolysis bullosa skin. The missense mutation G539E allowed synthesis of immunoreactive collagen XVII in keratinocytes, but prevented its secretion, thus causing lack of the protein in the skin. The data suggest that different COL17A1 mutations and their combinations can result in a spectrum of biologic and clinical phenotypes of not only generalized atrophic benign epidermolysis bullosa, but also localized junctional epidermolysis bullosa.

Successful prenatal exclusion of an unspecified subtype of severe epidermolysis bullosa.

BACKGROUND: In most cases of prenatal diagnosis of epidermolysis bullosa (EB), the subtype of severe EB from which the fetus is at risk is identified by studying the specimens of the proband. In this study, the parents of a child with an unspecified subtype of severe EB sought prenatal diagnosis for their second and third pregnancies. METHODS: The firstborn of a couple (the proband) suffered generalized blistering and erosions of the skin present from delivery, and died on the 11th postnatal day of severe EB of an unspecified type. The only diagnostic specimen available from the first infant was a conventionally stained skin section for light microscopy that showed the dermo-epidermal separation. For prenatal diagnosis in the second and third pregnancies, fetal skin biopsies were performed at 19 weeks of gestation. RESULTS: In both cases, fetal skin showed no ultrastructural abnormalities and no evidence of dermo-epidermal separation. Indirect immunofluorescence was positive for monoclonal antibodies against type VII collagen, laminin 5, uncein, alpha6 and beta4 integrins, BPAG2, and HD1/plectin, which are known to be reduced or absent in specific subsets of severe EB. The pregnancies were therefore continued, and normal healthy second and third children were delivered. CONCLUSIONS: Fetal skin biopsy, together with a panel of newly developed monoclonal antibodies, provided reliable prenatal diagnosis in the present family in which preliminary information of the EB proband was limited.

Neoexpression of the epithelial adhesion complex antigens in thyroid tumours is associated with proliferation and squamous differentiation markers.

Integrin dimer alpha 6 beta 4 is a transmembrane component of an epithelial cell adhesion complex that consists of hemidesmosomes (HDs), basement membrane (BM)-associated laminin-5 (Ln-5), and anchoring filaments/type VII collagen, all of which are absent from normal thyroid follicular epithelium. In the present study, the expression of epithelial cell adhesion complex antigens in thyroid tumours was investigated using immunohistochemistry. In addition to integrin subunits alpha 6 and beta 4, immunoreactivity was found for all chains of Ln-5, alpha 3, beta 3 and gamma 2, type VII collagen and hemidesmosomal antigen, HD1, in most thyroid carcinomas associated with tumour anaplasia and papillary growth pattern and located at the border of parenchymal cells and connective tissue or blood vessel walls. In addition, a more restricted expression of bullous pemphigoid antigens 180 and 230 (BP180 and BP230), constituents of HDs, was found in some papillary and anaplastic carcinomas and atypical adenomas. Adhesion complex antigens were located to regions of cells which were immunoreactive for cytokeratin (ck)-5 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen Ki-67. The results suggest that in thyroid carcinomas, the emergence of adhesion complex antigens is associated with squamous differentiation and high proliferative activity.

Difference between dorsal and ventral iris in lens producing potency in normal lens regeneration is maintained after dissociation and reaggregation of cells from the adult newt, Cynops pyrrhogaster.

In Wolffian lens regeneration, lentectomized newt eye can produce a new lens from the dorsal marginal iris, but the ventral iris has never shown such capabilities. To investigate the difference of lens regenerating potency between dorsal and ventral iris epithelium at the cellular level, a transplantation system using cell reaggregates was developed. Two methods were devised for preparing the reaggregates from pigmented iris epithelial cells. One was rotating cells in an agar-coated multiplate on a gyratory shaker and the other was incubating cells in a microcentrifuge tube after slight centrifugation. Reaggregates made of dorsal iris cells that had been completely dissociated into single cells were phenotypically transformed into a lens when placed in the pupillary region of the lentectomized host eye. None of the ventral reaggregates produced a lens. Even dorsal reaggregates could not transdifferentiate into lens when they were placed away from the pupil. The produced lenses from the reaggregates were morphologically and immunohistochemically identified. To obtain evidence whether produced lenses really originated from singly dissociated cells, we labeled dissociated cells with a fluorescent dye (PKH26) before reaggregate formation and then traced it in the produced lens.