Involuntary Emotional Expression Disorder in a Patient With Toluene Leukoencephalopathy / Trastorno de expresión emocional involuntaria en un paciente con leucoencefalopatía por tolueno

ABSTRACT Objective: Inhalant users may develop toluene leukoencephalopathy, a devastating neuropsychiatric disorder. We present a case of toluene-induced damage to the corticospinal and the corticonuclear tracts, which presented with involuntary emotional expression dis-order. Methods: Case study of a 20-year-old man with a 3-year history of frequent solvent abuse was admitted to the Neuropsychiatry Unit of the National Institute of Neurology and Neurosurgery because "he could not speak or walk" but would keep "laughing and crying without reason". Results: Neuropsychiatric examination revealed pathological laughter and crying, facial and speech apraxia, a bilateral pyramidal syndrome, and lack of control of urinary sphincter. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed a highly selective bilateral damage to the pyramidal system and the somatosensory pathway. SPECT imaging showed left fronto-parietal hypoperfusion. Conclusions: This document provides support for the understanding of involuntary emotional expression disorders as a differential diagnosis in the clinical practice of psychiatrists, as well as the functional anatomy of these conditions.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Los usuarios de inhalantes pueden contraer leucoencefalopatía por tolueno, un trastorno neuropsiquiátrico devastador. Se presenta un caso de daño inducido por tolueno en el tracto corticoespinal y corticonuclear, que se manifestó con un trastorno involuntario de la expresión emocional. Métodos: Un varón de 20 años con antecedente de 3 años de abuso de solventes ingresó en la Unidad de Neuropsiquiatría del Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía porque «no podía hablar ni caminar¼ y presentaba episodios súbitos de risa y llanto sin razón aparente. Resultados: La valoración neuropsiquiátrica reveló risa y llanto patológicos, apraxia facial y fonatoria, síndrome piramidal bilateral y ausencia de control del esfínter urinario. La resonancia magnética cerebral mostró un daño bilateral muy selectivo del sistema piramidal y la vía somatosensorial. La imagen de tomografía computarizada por emisión monofotónica mostró hipoperfusión frontoparietal izquierda. Conclusiones: Este documento proporciona apoyo para la comprensión de los trastornos de la expresión emocional involuntaria como diagnóstico diferencial en la práctica clínica de los psiquiatras, así como de la anatomía funcional de estas condiciones.

Differences in quality of life between genders in acromegaly.

Objective: To study the impact of secondary mental disorders in patients affected with acromegaly and correlate them with quality of life (QoL) and disease status. Design: An observational transversal descriptive and comparative study that evaluates QoL's impact due to secondary mental disorders in affected Mexicans with acromegaly using AcroQoL and SF-36 instruments. Correlation of the results with the disease's biochemical status was performed. According to Beck's scales, anxiety and depression analyses evaluate QoL's impact, and its gender variability is described. Results: Eighty-five patients with diagnoses of acromegaly were included. The mean age was 43.18 years, 47 being women (55.29%). The mean age at diagnosis was 37.95 years, with no difference between men and women. AcroQoL and SF-36 global and sub-domain scores differed significantly between men and women, the latter having lower global and individual sub-domain scores. The mean score of QoL, according to AcroQoL, is 59.40. In women, the mean values are less (55.13) than men (64.68), p = 0.021. The sub-domain analyses' scores in physical, appearance and social relationships were less in women (53.21; 47.34; 62.32) than men (62.68; 56.76; 73.87) p = 0.044, 0.069 and 0.013, respectively. Higher Beck's Depression Inventory (BDI) and Beck's Anxiety Inventory (BAI) scores correlated with lower QoL as assessed by global and individual sub-domain scores. Women presented significantly higher BDI and BAI mean scores when compared to men regardless of their biochemical status. Anxiety (p = 0.027) and depression (p < 0.001) severity were higher in women compared to men. Conclusion: Correlations between female gender, depression/anxiety scores and QoL require further validation. There is much to be routinely done to improve secondary psychopathology in patients affected by this disease. The need for mental status screening at diagnosis should be emphasized to identify secondary mental illnesses to improve QoL with its treatment.

Deep-brain stimulation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: Clinical and molecular neuroimaging correlation / Estimulación cerebral profunda en el trastorno obsesivo compulsivo resistente a tratamiento: correlato clínico y de neuroimagen molecular

ABSTRACT Introduction: Obsessive-compulsive disorder is defined by the presence of obsessions and compulsions that cause marked anxiety or distress and has been associated with a disruption in corticostriato-thalamo-cortical circuitry. After treatment, around 50% of patients continue to experience incapacitating symptoms. Deep-brain stimulation has been shown to be an effective therapeutic alternative to regular treatment. Methods: Case report. Case presentation: A 54-year-old woman with a diagnosis of treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder was treated with deep-brain stimulation of the anterior limb of the internal capsule. Molecular imaging before and after the procedure was obtained and correlated with clinical features. Conclusions: Deep-brain stimulation may be a therapeutic alternative to regular care in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder and can be correlated to functional changes in suspected anatomical structures.

RESUMEN Introducción: El trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo se define por la presencia de obsesiones y compulsiones que ocasionan ansiedad y malestar marcados, y se ha asociado con una alteración en los circuitos cortico-estriado-tálamo-corticales. Tras tratamiento, alrededor de la mitad de los pacientes permanecen con síntomas discapacitantes. La estimulación cerebral profunda ha mostrado ser una alternativa efectiva al tratamiento usual. Métodos: Reporte de caso. Presentación del caso: Una mujer de 54 años con diagnóstico de trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo resistente a tratamiento fue tratada con estimulación cerebral profunda del brazo anterior de la cápsula interna. Se obtuvieron imágenes moleculares antes y después de la intervención y fueron correlacionadas con el cuadro clínico. Conclusiones: La estimulación magnética profunda puede ser una alternativa terapéutica al tratamiento usual en el trastorno obsesivo compulsivo resistente a tratamiento, y puede correlacionarse con cambios funcionales en estructuras anatómicas de sospecha.

Ketamina, un nuevo agente terapéutico para la depresión / Ketamine, a New Therapeutic Agent for Depression

Resumen: El trastorno depresivo mayor (TDM) afecta aproximadamente a una de cada 10 personas en México y es una de las primeras 5 causas de discapacidad a nivel global. Las opciones de tratamiento actuales son limitadas debido a que solo actúan en algunos de los factores fisiopatológicos relacionados con esta enfermedad, además de que los efectos sobre la depresión suelen ser retardados. Esto implica una importante limitación en disminuir la discapacidad que origina e impide una acción rápida ante la ideación suicida. Recientemente, la ketamina (un anestésico) ha probado tener propiedades antidepresivas a través de su actividad sobre el sistema de neurotransmisión glutamatérgica (ningún otro tratamiento actúa a este nivel). Logra mejoría de los síntomas depresivos en horas y ha resultado útil en pacientes que no responden a los tratamientos disponibles en la actualidad. Recientemente se aprobó su utilización para el tratamiento de este trastorno. Sin embargo, aún quedan interrogantes sobre sus mecanismos de acción antidepresiva, seguridad y efectos secundarios, entre otros.

Abstract: Major depressive disorder affects about one in every 10 people in Mexico and is one of the first 5 causes of disability worldwide. Current treatment options are limited and only act upon some factors associated in its physiopathology. Moreover, the effects on depression are not immediate, which is a great limitation in obtaining a benefit over disability caused by this disorder and impedes a rapid action in the scenario of suicidality. Recently, ketamine (an anesthetic) has shown to have antidepressant properties by acting in the glutamate neurotransmission system (while no other current treatment acts on this level). It offers benefits in depressive symptoms in a matter of hours and has proven to be useful in patients that do not benefit from current therapeutic options. Recently, it has been approved for the treatment of depression. However, there are still many questions about its antidepressant mechanisms of action, safety, side effects, among others.

Ketamine as augmentation for the treatment of major depression and suicidal risk in advanced cancer: Case report.

OBJECTIVE: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is common in patients diagnosed with advanced cancer (AC), with a prevalence of 16.5%. It is associated with great disability and worsened quality of life, increased number and intensity of physical symptoms, and lower survival. It is the main factor for the presence of suicidal ideation. Antidepressants show modest efficacy, and response requires several weeks. Ketamine has demonstrated a fast and robust antidepressant effect in subanesthetic doses. This effect may prove useful in patients with AC, MDD, and suicidal risk. METHOD: We report a case of a patient with advanced cervical cancer who presented with uncontrollable pain, MDD, and a suicide attempt. RESULT: A 39-year-old woman diagnosed with cervical cancer stage IVB presented to the Emergency Department after a suicide attempt by hanging. Upon evaluation by the palliative care psychiatrist, she reported intense pain, unresponsive to analgesics, and had a history of persistent suicidal ideation. Antidepressant treatment was started (sertraline 50mg/d) after a single dose of ketamine hydrochloride IV (0.5 mg/kg) was administered. Treatment response was measured using the Brief Edinburgh Depression Scale before and after the intervention. The depressive symptoms decreased by 17% on day 1, 39% on day 3, and 72% on day 17. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: This case report shows ketamine's efficacy as an augmentation agent alongside conventional antidepressant treatment in patients with AC. Moreover, it shows rapid response in suicidal ideation that has not been achieved with treatment as usual. More clinical trials are needed to support the potential benefit and safety of ketamine in patients with AC, MDD, and persisting suicidal ideation.

Catatonia in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis.

AIM: There is a lack of studies related to the frequency, phenomenology, and associated features of catatonic syndrome in patients with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis (ANMDARE). This study aimed to measure the frequency of catatonia in this condition and to delineate its particular symptoms. METHODS: A prospective study was done with all inpatients who fulfilled the criteria of definite ANMDARE admitted to the National Institute of Neurology and Neurosurgery of Mexico from January 2014 to September 2018. The Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale and Braünig Catatonia Rating Scale were administered at admission. RESULTS: Fifty-eight patients were included and catatonia was diagnosed in 41 of these patients (70.6%). Immobility, staring, mutism, and posturing were the most frequent catatonic signs. Catatonia was associated with delirium, hallucinations, psychomotor agitation, generalized electroencephalography dysfunction, and previous use of antipsychotics. Mortality was present in 10% of the total sample; it was associated with status epilepticus, and was less frequent in the catatonia group. After immunotherapy, all cases showed a complete recovery from catatonic signs. CONCLUSION: This systematic assessment of catatonic syndrome shows that it is a frequent feature in patients with ANMDARE as part of a clinical pattern that includes delirium, psychomotor agitation, and hallucinations. The lack of recognition of this pattern may be a source of diagnostic and therapeutic errors, as most physicians associate catatonia with schizophrenia and affective disorders.

[Hospitalization trends of neuropsychiatric disorders in a middle-income country]. / Tendencias en hospitalización de trastornos neuropsiquiátricos en un país de ingresos medios.

BACKGROUND: Neuropsychiatric disorders represent one of the first causes of disability worldwide. Recognizing the main causes for hospitalization may allow the implementation of interventions to prevent hospitalization and promote ambulatory care. OBJECTIVE: To describe the trends of mental disorders requiring hospitalization in a neuropsychiatric referral center of a middle-income country. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Observational, cross-sectional, and analytic study. Information was obtained from dismissal letters and from the Department of Epidemiology database in a 16-year period at a neuropsychiatric referral center. Diagnoses and trends through this period were obtained using Spearman's correlation. RESULTS: Schizophrenia represented most of the cases (19%), followed by bipolar disorder (13%). Psychotic disorders (PD) were found to contribute the most to the length of stay (43.76%), followed by mood disorders (MD) (39.07%). Schizophrenia-related dismissals diminished through the years (r = -751; p = 0.001), whereas depression-related disorders increased (r = 0.857; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: PD are the first cause of neuropsychiatric hospitalization. MD have an increasing frequency of hospitalization. Longer-stay disorders reflect global and economic burden of disease trends. These results might guide interventions that reduce hospital-based models of care, which represent a great burden in low and middle-income countries. Studies aiming to explain the trends reported are needed.

INTRODUCCIÓN: los trastornos neuropsiquiátricos son una de las primeras causas de discapacidad a nivel mundial. Reconocer las principales causas de hospitalización puede permitir implementar intervenciones para evitar la hospitalización y promover un mejor cuidado ambulatorio. OBJETIVO: describir las tendencias en trastornos mentales que requieren hospitalización en un centro de referencia neuropsiquiátrico en un país de ingresos medios. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: estudio observacional, transversal y analítico. Se obtuvo información de hojas de egreso y de la base de datos del Departamento de Epidemiología de un centro neuropsiquiátrico en un periodo de 16 años, y las tendencias con el coeficiente de correlación de Spearman. RESULTADOS: la esquizofrenia (ESQ) representó la mayoría de los casos (19%), seguida del trastorno bipolar (13%). Los tranos psicóticos (TP) (43.76%) y los trastornos afectivos (TA) (39.07%) contribuyeron a la mayoría de los días intrahospitalarios. Las hospitalizaciones por ESQ disminuyeron a lo largo de los años (r = −751; p = 0.001) y las relacionadas con depresión aumentaron (r = 0.857; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONES: los TP son la primera causa de hospitalización neuropsiquiátrica. Los TA tienen una frecuencia de hospitalización ascendente. Los trastornos asociados con una estancia mayor reflejan tendencias globales de carga de enfermedad y económica. Estos resultados pueden guiar intervenciones que reduzcan modelos basados en hospitalización, que representan una carga en países de bajo a medio ingreso. Se requieren estudios que expliquen estas tendencias.

Dopaminergic Hyperactivity in Neurological Patients with Delirium.

BACKGROUND: Delirium has important etiological, prognostic, and therapeutic implications. The study of neurochemical markers in this condition is relevant to the understanding of its pathophysiology. The assessment of the dopamine system is particularly relevant, as dopamine antagonists are the most used drugs in delirium. AIM: To analyze neurotransmission markers in patients with delirium, focusing in the dopamine metabolite, homovanillic acid. METHODS: A case-control study was performed at the National Institute of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Mexico, including hospitalized patients in which lumbar puncture was obtained for diagnostic purposes. Cases were selected if they fulfilled DSM-5 criteria for delirium. Age-paired controls were patients in which delirium was ruled out, selected at the same clinical scenario, during the same period. Neurological and systemic diagnoses were registered. Delirium was assessed using the DRS-98-R instrument. The dopamine metabolite, homovanillic acid (HVA), was measured by means of high-performance liquid chromatography. Other neurotransmission markers were also measured (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, glutamate, aspartate, GABA, glycine, arginine, citrulline, nitrites, and nitrates). A logistic regression model was used to determine pathogenic factors associated with the presence of delirium. RESULTS: 68 neurological patients with delirium and 68 patients without delirium were included. Higher homovanillic acid levels in cerebrospinal fluid were significantly associated with delirium. This result was significant after a subanalysis in patients without exposure to antipsychotics. Male gender and autoimmune limbic encephalitis were also associated with the presence of delirium. CONCLUSIONS: In hospitalized neurological patients, dopaminergic hyperactivity and autoimmune limbic encephalitis are pathogenic factors associated with the presence of delirium.

Ketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression: a New Advocate.

Current alternatives for the treatment of major depressive disorder lack efficacy and have a delayed onset of action. Recently, the glutamatergic neurotransmission system has been noted to play an important role in the pathophysiology of this disorder. Ever since the first report of the antidepressant effects of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist, ketamine, research has been redirected to novel therapeutic targets. With this rapidly growing evidence of a fast-acting antidepressant such as ketamine, as well as its efficacy in treatment-resistant cases of depression, off-label use has become popular in certain settings. In this article, the clinical antidepressant properties of ketamine in relation to the glutamate hypothesis of depression are discussed, to highlight the breakthrough of these findings in the development of novel therapeutic strategies and provide a clearer view of its benefits and potential harms.

Non-inflammatory cerebrospinal fluid delays the diagnosis and start of immunotherapy in anti-NMDAR encephalitis.

Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis is a form of autoimmune encephalopathy that presents with a wide variety of symptoms, including neuropsychiatric manifestations. The authors' aim for this study was to analyze the results of paraclinical studies of patients with a diagnosis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis and the association between symptom onset and diagnosis, and start of immunotherapy. Retrospective data of 29 patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis were gathered and analyzed. Abnormal EEG was found in 27 patients (93.1%), whereas MRI was abnormal in 19 patients (65.5%). In contrast, an inflammatory pattern on CSF analysis was found in only 13 patients (44.8%). The absence of pleocytosis or increased proteins in the CSF was associated with a longer time from symptom onset to diagnosis and treatment (p = 0.003). The authors conclude that noninflammatory CSF may delay the correct diagnosis and start of immunotherapy in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. In the presence of suggestive clinical features, extensive studies including EEG are recommended.

Non-inflammatory cerebrospinal fluid delays the diagnosis and start of immunotherapy in anti-NMDAR encephalitis / La ausencia de hallazgos de inflamación en líquido cefalorraquídeo retrasa el inicio de inmunoterapia en la encefalitis anti-NMDAR

ABSTRACT Anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (anti-NMDAR) encephalitis is a form of autoimmune encephalopathy that presents with a wide variety of symptoms, including neuropsychiatric manifestations. The authors' aim for this study was to analyze the results of paraclinical studies of patients with a diagnosis of anti-NMDAR encephalitis and the association between symptom onset and diagnosis, and start of immunotherapy. Retrospective data of 29 patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis were gathered and analyzed. Abnormal EEG was found in 27 patients (93.1%), whereas MRI was abnormal in 19 patients (65.5%). In contrast, an inflammatory pattern on CSF analysis was found in only 13 patients (44.8%). The absence of pleocytosis or increased proteins in the CSF was associated with a longer time from symptom onset to diagnosis and treatment (p = 0.003). The authors conclude that noninflammatory CSF may delay the correct diagnosis and start of immunotherapy in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. In the presence of suggestive clinical features, extensive studies including EEG are recommended.

RESUMEN La encefalitis por receptor anti-N-metil-D-aspartato (anti-NMDAR) es una encefalopatía autoinmune con una amplia variedad de síntomas, incluyendo manifestaciones neuropsiquiátricas. Nuestro objetivo en este estudio fue analizar los resultados paraclínicos de pacientes diagnosticados con encefalitis anti-NMDAR y la asociación entre inicio de sintomatología, el diagnóstico y el inicio de inmunoterapia. Encontramos un EEG anormal en 27 pacientes (93.1%), así como IRM anormal en 19 de ellos (65.5%). En contraste, el análisis de LCR mostró un patrón inflamatorio en tan solo 13 pacientes (44.8%). La ausencia de pleocitosis o proteínas incrementadas en el LCR se asoció con un mayor tiempo desde el inicio de la sintomatología hasta el inicio del tratamiento (p=0.003). Concluimos que el LCR no inflamatorio puede retrasar el diagnóstico correcto y el inicio de tratamiento en encefalitis anti-NMDAR, por lo que se recomienda la realización de estudios exhaustivos, incluyendo EEG, ante la presencia de indicadores clínicos sugerentes del padecimiento.

Neuropsychiatry: Towards a Philosophy of Praxis / Neuropsiquiatría: hacia una filosofía de la práctica

Abstract Neuropsychiatry is a specialized clinical, academic and scientific discipline with its field located in the borderland territory between neurology and psychiatry. In this article, we approach the theoretical definition of neuropsychiatry, and in order to address the practical aspects of the discipline, we describe the profile of a neuropsychiatric liaison service in the setting of a large hospital for neurological diseases in a middle-income country. An audit of consecutive in-patients requiring neuropsychiatric assessment at the National Institute of Neurology and Neurosurgery of Mexico is reported, comprising a total of 1212 patients. The main neurological diagnoses were brain infections (21%), brain neoplasms (17%), cerebrovascular disease (14%), epilepsy (8%), white matter diseases (5%), peripheral neuropathies (5%), extrapyramidal diseases (4%), ataxia (2%), and traumatic brain injury and related phenomena (1.8%). The most frequent neuropsychiatric diagnoses were delirium (36%), depressive disorders (16.4%), dementia (14%), anxiety disorders (8%), frontal syndromes (5%), adjustment disorders (4%), psychosis (3%), somatoform disorders (3%), and catatonia (3%). The borderland between neurology and psychiatry is a large territory that requires the knowledge and clinical skills of both disciplines, but also the unique expertise acquired in a clinical and academic neuropsychiatry program.

Resumen La neuropsiquiatría es una disciplina médica cuyo campo clínico, académico y científico se localiza en el territorio fronterizo entre la neurología y la psiquiatría. En este artículo se aborda la definición teórica de la neuropsiquiatría y, con el objetivo de tratar los aspectos prácticos de la neuropsiquiatría, se describe el perfil de un servicio de interconsulta neuropsiquiátrica en el contexto de un hospital dedicado a las enfermedades del sistema nervioso, en un país de ingreso económico medio. Se incluyó a 1.212 pacientes evaluados consecutivamente en el Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía de México. Los diagnósticos principales fueron infecciones cerebrales (21%), neoplasias del sistema nervioso (17%), enfermedad cerebrovascular (14%), epilepsia (8%), enfermedades de la sustancia blanca (5%), neuropatías periféricas (5%), enfermedades extrapiramidales (4%), ataxias (2%) y traumatismos craneoencefálicos (1,8%). Los diagnósticos neuropsiquiátricos más frecuentes fueron síndrome confusional (36%), depresión (16,4%), demencia (14%), ansiedad (8%), síndromes frontales (5%), reacciones de ajuste (4%), psicosis (3%), trastornos somatoformes (3%) y catatonia (3%). El territorio fronterizo entre la neurología y la psiquiatría es extenso y requiere los conocimientos y fortalezas de ambas disciplinas, pero también la pericia entrenada mediante un programa clínico, científico y académico especializado.

Neuropsychiatry: Towards a Philosophy of Praxis.

Neuropsychiatry is a specialized clinical, academic and scientific discipline with its field located in the borderland territory between neurology and psychiatry. In this article, we approach the theoretical definition of neuropsychiatry, and in order to address the practical aspects of the discipline, we describe the profile of a neuropsychiatric liaison service in the setting of a large hospital for neurological diseases in a middle-income country. An audit of consecutive in-patients requiring neuropsychiatric assessment at the National Institute of Neurology and Neurosurgery of Mexico is reported, comprising a total of 1212 patients. The main neurological diagnoses were brain infections (21%), brain neoplasms (17%), cerebrovascular disease (14%), epilepsy (8%), white matter diseases (5%), peripheral neuropathies (5%), extrapyramidal diseases (4%), ataxia (2%), and traumatic brain injury and related phenomena (1.8%). The most frequent neuropsychiatric diagnoses were delirium (36%), depressive disorders (16.4%), dementia (14%), anxiety disorders (8%), frontal syndromes (5%), adjustment disorders (4%), psychosis (3%), somatoform disorders (3%), and catatonia (3%). The borderland between neurology and psychiatry is a large territory that requires the knowledge and clinical skills of both disciplines, but also the unique expertise acquired in a clinical and academic neuropsychiatry program.

Tratamiento farmacológico de la depresión: actualidades y futuras direcciones / Pharmacological treatment of depression: current and future directions

Resumen El trastorno depresivo mayor representa una de las principales causas de discapacidad a nivel mundial. Su neurobiología es compleja, e involucra factores genéticos, moleculares, neurofisiológicos y psicosociales. Las opciones de tratamiento incluyen la psicoterapia, los psicofármacos, la terapia electro-convulsiva, y la terapia magnética transcraneal y profunda. El tratamiento farmacológico disponible en la actualidad únicamente alcanza tasas de respuesta y remisión sintomática modestas. Los antidepresivos actuales, a pesar de sus distintos mecanismos de acción, tienen como común denominador la regulación de sistemas de neurotransmisión monoaminérgica (serotonina, noradrenalina, dopamina), y comparten similar eficacia. La elección del antidepresivo a utilizar debe individualizarse y basarse en las características sintomáticas del cuadro depresivo, comorbilidades, efectos secundarios, interacciones farmacológicas y disponibilidad. Por esta razón, el médico debe conocer los perfiles farmacológicos de los antidepresivos a profundidad. Los recientes avances en la investigadón sobre la neurobiología de la depresión involucran al sistema glutamatérgico como un contribuyente. A su vez, el descubrimiento de los efectos antidepresivos de la ketaminą, un antagonista del receptor NMDA de gluta mato, ha abierto las puertas para el desarrollo de estrategias dirigidas a nuevos blancos terapéuticos.

Abstract Major depressive disorder represents one of the main causes of disability worldwide. Its neurobiology is complex, involving genetic, molecular, neurophysiological and psychosocial fac֊tors. Treatment options include psychotherapy, psychotropic medication, electroconvulsive therapy, and transcranial and deep magnetic stimulation. Currently available medication will only achieve modest response and remission rates. Current antidepressants have the common characteristic of regulating the monoaminergic neurotransmission systems (serotonin, noradrenaline, dopamine), regardless of their different mechanisms of action, and share similar efficacy. The choice of the antidepressant must be individualized and based on the symptomatic characteristics of the depressive episode, comorbidities, side effects, pharmacological interactions, and availability. For this reason, practitioners must be deeply familiar with the pharmacological profiles of the antidepressants. Recent advances in research on the neurobiology of depression have involved the glutamatergic system as a contributor. Also, the discovery of the antidepressant effects of ketamine, a glutamatergic NMDA receptor antagonist, has opened the doors to the development of strategies directed to new therapeutic targets

Alucinaciones visuales en pacientes con privación sensorial: ¿síndrome de Charles Bonnet? / Visual hallucinations in sensory deprived patients: Charles Bonnet syndrome?

Introducción: Existen pacientes que, después de lesiones cerebrales o periféricas, pierden alguna función sensorial, como la vista o el oído. Paradójicamente, después de perder esta función, presentan alucinaciones complejas relacionadas con la función perdida. Se sabe que este fenómeno puede presentarse ante lesiones en cualquier nivel de la vía visual, especialmente en el nivel de la retina.Objetivo: Revisar la bibliografía existente acerca del síndrome de Charles Bonnet para conocer los últimos avances con respecto a este fenómeno.Método: Se revisaron las bases de datos de PubMed y PsychInfo con las siguientes palabras clave: síndrome de Charles Bonnet; alucinaciones visuales; alucinosis peduncular; Charles Bonnet; privación sensorial. Se incluyeron aquellos artículos que efectivamente trataran del tema. Asimismo, se revisaron los textos clásicos referentes a este síndrome y los artículos mencionados en la bibliografía encontrada.Resultados: En el presente artículo se describe la historia del síndrome, el fenómeno clínico, los factores de riesgo, los criterios diagnósticos, los tratamientos empleados, otros fenómenos similares y las teorías propuestas para explicarlo.Discusión y conclusión: A la fecha continúan siendo controvertidos los criterios diagnósticos del síndrome de Charles Bonnet, en especial en lo referente a la preservación absoluta del insight como condición sine qua non. Descrito desde el siglo XVIII, el síndrome de Charles Bonnet corresponde al prototipo de alucinaciones visuales en pacientes con privación visual, si bien, de acuerdo con la presente revisión, la fenomenología de éste es bastante variada, siendo cuestionable si resulta también el prototipo de las alucinaciones con insight preservado.

Introduction: Some patients, after brain or peripheral injuries, lose a sensory function, such as sight or hearing, but paradoxically experience complex hallucinations related to the function they have lost. It is known that this phenomenon may appear with injuries at any level in the visual pathway, especially in the retina.Objective:To review the existent bibliography on the Charles Bonnet syndrome to establish the state of the art with regards to this phenomenon.Method: The databases PubMed and PsychInfo were searched for articles containing the following keywords: Charles Bonnet syndrome; visual hallucinations; peduncular hallucinosis; Charles Bonnet; sensory deprivation. We included those related to the subject. We also included the classic texts referring to this phenomenon and the articles mentioned in the literature.Results: In the present study, we describe the history of Charles Bonnet syndrome, clinical presentation, risk factors, diagnostic criteria, treatment employed, similar conditions and the theories seeking to explain it.Discussion and conclusion: To date, the diagnostic criteria for Charles Bonnet syndrome remain controversial, especially those concerning the absolute preservation of insight as a sine qua non factor to establish the diagnosis. Conclusion: Described since the 18th century, the Charles Bonnet syndrome corresponds to the prototype of visual hallucinations in patients with visual deprivation, although, according to the present review, its phenomenology is vast, remaining unclear if it corresponds to the prototype of hallucinations with preserved insight.