Anaesthetic implications of intra-operative Indocyanine Green use in pediatric surgery.

INTRODUCTION: The use of Indocyanine Green (ICG) dye for fluorescent guided surgery is increasing in children. In many cases, ICG is injected intravenously peri-operatively and is known to falsely alter peripheral oxygenation readings because of interference with the measured red/infrared absorbance ratio of pulsatile blood. METHODS: The study occurred at a single centre tertiary children's hospital. ICG was delivered peri-operatively. SpO2 was monitored real-time in all patients. Blood pressure, heart rate, expired carbon dioxide and electrocardiographic data were collected from anaesthetic records. Data is median (interquartile range) RESULTS: Twenty-five patients(13 F;12 M) age 60(77)months and weight 17(18.7)kg were included between 01/April/2021 and 31/Nov/2022. Fifteen patients received 0.5(0.38) mg/kg ICG at induction of anesthesia with ΔSpO2 of 6(2) %. Median time to ΔSpO2 fall was 25(6) s with recovery taking 74(68) s. Time to recovery and ΔSpO2 were proportional to ICG dose/kg with r2 of 0.7993 and 0.597 and p of 0.0008 and 0.001 respectively on linear regression. Five patients had intralesional ICG and one had an enteral dose with no effect on SpO2. Eight patients had a total of 20 intraoperative bolus doses of ICG with no effect on SpO2 in 11. In 9, time to SpO2 fall was 26(12) s with ΔSpO2 of 4(1) % and recovery at 24(50) s. No corrective anaesthetic manoeuvres were required. CONCLUSION: Understanding the timings of the transient artefactual fall and recovery in SpO2 following ICG injection is essential for safe anesthesia. This is the first study to evaluate this effect in children prospectively.

Assessment of jejunal interposition perfusion using indocyanine green.

INTRODUCTION: Jejunal interposition (JI) is an option for oesophageal replacement in children; ensuring good graft perfusion is essential. We report three cases where Indocyanine Green (ICG) with Near-Infrared Fluorescence (NIRF) was used to assess perfusion during graft selection, passage into the chest and anastomotic assessment. This extra assessment may reduce risk of anastomotic leak and/or stricture. METHODS: We describe the technique and salient features of all patients who have undergone ICG/NIRF-assisted JI in our centre. Patient demographics, indications for surgery, intra-operative plan, video of NIR perfusion assessment, complications and outcomes were reviewed. RESULTS: ICG/NIRF was used in three patients (2M:1F) at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg. ICG/NIRF imaging helped select the jejunal graft and confirmed perfusion after division of segmental arteries. Perfusion was assessed before and after passing the graft through the diaphragmatic hiatus and before and after making the oesophago-jejunal anastomosis. Intrathoracic assessment at the end of the procedure confirmed good perfusion of mesentery and intrathoracic bowel. In two patients, the reassurance contributed to successful procedures. In the third patient, graft selection was satisfactory, but borderline perfusion on clinical assessment after passing the graft to the chest, confirmed by ICG/NIRF meant the graft was abandoned. CONCLUSIONS: ICG/NIRF imaging was feasible and augmented our subjective assessment of graft perfusion, giving greater confidence during graft preparation, movement, and anastomosis. In addition, the imaging helped us abandon one graft. This series demonstrates the feasibility and benefit of ICG/NIR use in JI surgery. Further studies are required to optimise ICG use in this setting.

Early results of minimally invasive fluorescent guided pediatric oncology surgery with delivery of indocyanine green during induction of anesthesia.

BACKGROUND: Indocyanine green (ICG) fluoresces in the near infra-red (NIR) spectrum. It is widely used in adult oncological surgery for identification of tumor margins and lymph node sampling. However, deliver of ICG in almost all studies is 24 h or more prior to surgery. This is the first study in children to assess its feasibility in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) for oncological disease following ICG injection during induction of anesthesia. METHODS: This was an open label, prospective, single center, feasibility study recruiting consecutive patients eligible for MIS tumor resection or metastectomy. ICG was injected intravenously at induction of anesthesia. Patient demographics, intraoperative appearances, post-operative histopathology, and surgeon Likert ratings were collected. RESULTS: Fourteen patients were included. Five had lung metastases (Wilms, Osteosarcoma (2), Hodgkin's, melanoma) and 9 had other tumors (neuroblastoma, inflammatory myofibroblastic tumor, ganglioneuroma, phaeochromocytoma, adrenal tumor). Lung metastases were easily identifiable, and all had negative margins. Tumors containing viable disease fluoresced and were completely resected, whilst benign and heavily treated tumors were afluorescent. There were no adverse events relating to ICG or issues with background fluorescence. CONCLUSION: Based on this small sample, injection of ICG during induction of anesthesia is safe and effective in showing tumor margins in patients who have had little or no neoadjuvant chemotherapy as well as in metastectomy in Wilms and osteosarcoma. Further studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results.

Esophago-Vascular Fistulae in Children: Five Survivors, Literature Review, and Proposal for Management.

INTRODUCTION: Esophago-vascular fistulae in children are almost uniformly fatal with death occurring by exsanguination. We present a single centre series of five surviving patients, a proposal for management and literature review. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients were identified from surgical logbooks, surgeon recollection and discharge coding data. Demographics, symptoms, co-morbidities, radiology, management and follow up details were recorded. RESULTS: Five patients (1M, 4F) were identified. Four were aorto-esophageal and one caroto-esophageal. Median age at initial presentation was 44 (8-177) months. Four patients had cross sectional imaging prior to surgery. Median time from presentation to combined entero-vascular surgery was 15 (0-419) days. Four patients required repair on cardio-pulmonary bypass with four undergoing staged surgical procedures. All required combined esophageal and cardio-vascular surgery. Length of PICU stay following combined surgery was 4 (2-60) days and overall hospital stay was 53 (15-84) days. Median follow up was 51 (17-61) months. Two patients had esophageal atresia and trachea-esophageal fistula managed as neonates. Three had no co-morbidities. Four had esophageal foreign bodies:1 esophageal stent, 2 button batteries, 1 chicken bone. One patient had a complication following colonic interposition. Four patients required an esophagostomy at the time of definitive surgery. All patients were alive and well at last follow up with one having successful reconnection surgery. CONCLUSION: In this series, outcomes were favourable. Multidisciplinary discussion and surgery are mandatory. If hemorrhage is controlled at presentation, then survival to discharge is possible but the magnitude of surgical intervention is both significant and very high risk. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 3.

Technical advances in the surgical management of Wilms tumors in children.

Surgery is one of the cornerstones of Wilms tumor treatment. In this article, we present technical advancements that are finding their way into the armamentarium of pediatric cancer surgeons. We discuss the current approaches, challenges, opportunities, and future directions of minimally invasive surgery (laparoscopic and robotics), image-guided surgery, and fluorescence-guided surgery. Furthermore, we discuss the use of intraoperative ultrasonography, as well as the use of new techniques to improve the quality of lymph node sampling.

Fluorescence-guided lymph node sampling is feasible during up-front or delayed nephrectomy for Wilms tumor.

BACKGROUND: Lymph node sampling is critical to surgical staging in Wilms tumor; failure to sample lymph nodes is associated with under-staging and an increased incidence of local relapse. However, no standard lymphatic mapping method is currently being utilized for Wilms tumor to aid identification of regional draining lymph nodes. Herein, we describe the use of fluorescence-guided lymphatic mapping for Wilms tumor. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two tertiary level referral centers independently began indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence-guided nodal mapping. In one center, this was achieved with ipsilateral intra-parenchymal (IP) injection of ICG during minimally invasive tumor nephrectomy (MIN) following neoadjuvant chemotherapy and in the other, with Peri­Hilar (PH) injection during upfront, open tumor nephrectomy (ON). Successful lymph node mapping was defined as the presence of fluorescence signal in draining lymph nodes. RESULTS: Eight patients (median age of 2.5 years) underwent fluorescence-guided lymphatic mapping (four IP and four PH injection). Lymphatic mapping was successful in seven patients (88%) including each of the four patients with IP injection. CONCLUSIONS: Fluorescence-guided lymphatic mapping of Wilms tumor drainage is feasible by both IP injection and PH injection techniques. However, whether lymphatic mapping improves the precision of lymph node sampling is unknown and should be studied in prospective trials.

A single centre experience using internal traction sutures in managing long gap oesophageal atresia.

AIM: Thoracoscopically placed internal traction sutures (ITS) for the initial management of long gap oesophageal atresia (LGOA), not amenable to primary anastomosis, was first described in 2015. Here we describe our experience using ITS both thoracoscopically and at thoracotomy where the gap between upper and lower oesophagus is too wide for primary anastomosis. METHOD: The case notes of all infants treated with ITS for oesophageal atresia (01/10/2015 to 01/12/2019) were reviewed. Gaps considered too wide for an anastomosis had ITS placed between the two pouches as described by Patkowski in 2015. All patients were gastrostomy fed.  Patients returned to theatre with an expectation to complete the anastomosis or re-tighten the traction sutures. RESULTS: Seven patients (4 OA, 1 OA with proximal fistula, 2 OA/distal TOF) median birthweight 2.28 kg (1.2-3.6 kg) were managed using ITS. Median gap length 4.5 (3-9) vertebral bodies.  ITS were placed thoracoscopically in 5 cases and at thoracotomy in 2 at median 46 days (1-120) old. In all cases, ITS was associated with significant intra-thoracic adhesions. Five patients leaked from the traction sutures. Four patients had a delayed primary anastomosis performed at thoracotomy and 3 required a cervical oesophagostomy. The median length of stay was 159 days (98-282).  All patients started thoracoscopically eventually required thoracotomy. CONCLUSION: The use of ITS in our department was associated with significant complications, particularly intra-thoracic leaks and adhesions.  In our hands ITS did not improve the feasibility of thoracoscopic repair for LGOA and has been abandoned by us. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV Case Series.

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous insertion of Broviac lines in infants less than 5kg: Prospective study of 100 consecutive procedures.

AIM: Ultrasound-guided (USG) percutaneous insertion of Broviac lines (cuffed tunnelled silastic central venous catheters, TCVC) has increasingly been adopted throughout the UK. However, vascular access remains a challenge in small babies and in some units is still performed by open cutdown. Our vascular access team, established in 2004, consists of consultant surgeons, anaesthetists and interventional radiologists, who provide all permanent vascular access by the USG technique. We reviewed the outcome in our last 100 patients less than 5 kg. METHOD: A prospective database of TCVC insertions in patients <5 kg weight recorded age, gestation, weight, diagnosis, type of catheter and complications within 28 days of insertion. A standardised technique of USG insertion is used by all operators. RESULTS: One-hundred patients <5 kg had TCVC inserted between 1/1/2018 and 31/3/2020. Median age 46(range0-316)days, gestation 36.5(23-42)weeks, weight 3(0.66 to 5)kg. INDICATION: parenteral nutrition(75), long term antibiotics(14), cardiac medication(6), chemotherapy(3), other(2). All were tunnelled silicone lines of single 2.7fr(51) and 4.2fr(46) or double lumen 7fr(3). Uncomplicated insertion in 94/100 cases. In 6 patients difficulties were encountered with cannulating the vein. In 4 cases an experienced colleague was called and managed to cannulate the vein; in 1 case a new successful attempt was made on the opposite internal jugular vein, and in 1 the femoral vein was used. No patient required an open cutdown. There were no cases of line sepsis requiring removal but 1 replacement was required for blockage within 28days. CONCLUSION: The USG approach in infants<5 kg is safe and can be used exclusively for venous access even in the most tiny babies. It is, however, a technically challenging procedure therefore we would recommend establishing a consultant delivered vascular access team to provide this service. Open venous cutdown in a tertiary children's hospital is no longer necessary for the insertion of TCVC and should be abandoned altogether. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE: Level I Prognosis Study.

Controlled aspiration of large paediatric ovarian cystic tumours.

AIM: Cystic ovarian masses in children may be physiological or neoplastic. It is mandatory that suspected neoplastic lesions are resected without tumour spillage. However, a large midline incision is cosmetically unappealing incision to young women. Here we describe our experience of using controlled drainage without spillage that allows a cosmetic pfannenstiel approach without compromising oncological principles. METHOD: All girls treated with large ovarian cystic masses since 2008 in our centre were identified and data was collected prospectively. A small pfannenstiel incision was performed followed by peritoneal washings; tissue glue was used to stick an Opsite™ dressing to the cyst surface and fluid drained so there was no leakage back into the patient. Once aspirated the cyst was delivered and an ovarian preserving cystectomy was performed where possible. RESULTS: Twenty-three girls (median age 14.5 years (8.1 to 16.5 years) were included. Pre-operative MRI scan showed a complex lesions with median volume of 1169 ml (range 252-7077 ml). At surgery 22/23 cysts were intact and removed without spillage. HISTOLOGY: mature teratoma (11), serous cyst (3), mucinous cyst adenocarcinoma (2), mucinous cystadenoma (5), Sertoli-Leydig tumour, sclerosing stromal tumour. One girl with pre-operative rupture of a mucinous adenocarcinoma subsequently died. Ovarian sparing cystectomy was performed in 17/23 girls. All other patients are well without evidence of recurrence. CONCLUSION: This is the largest series in children and adolescents using controlled drainage of cystic ovarian tumours. Though there were a range of diagnoses we have shown that these can be removed safely with a cosmetic pfannenstiel approach while following oncological principles.

Fluorescent Guided Lymph Node Harvest in Laparoscopic Wilms Nephroureterectomy.

Lymph node harvest is an integral part of Wilms tumor surgery with both SIOP and COG protocols asking for more than 6 lymph nodes to best evaluate for nodal spread and a subsequent need for intensification of treatment. The majority of studies show that in both open and minimally invasive resections the median number of nodes removed is 4. Indocyanine green and near infrared fluorescence may be the key to solving this problem. In adult gynaecology, colorectal and breast cancers, ICG is used to identify sentinel nodes and facilitate nodal retrieval. This report describes its use in Wilms tumor as a technique to aid lymph node harvest.

Exomphalos major: Conservative management using Manuka honey dressings and an outreach surgical nursing team.

INTRODUCTION: Controversy exists over the best dressing for conservative management of exomphalos major. Here we describe our experience of using Manuka Honey. METHODS: Our regimen involved covering the sac with Manuka honey (Advancis Medical™) wrapped with gauze and crepe bandage. Initially, dressings were changed 3 times a week and then twice weekly until full epithelialisation. Babies went home after reaching full feeds, with our outreach nurses continuing dressings in clinic until the parents were trained to do them alone. Only patients needing management of co-morbidities were transferred to our unit. Patients would be reviewed by video consultation. Data was prospectively collected. RESULTS: From 2011-2019, 24 consecutive patients (11:13 M:F; median gestation 37 weeks, birth weight 3.1 kg) with exomphalos major were managed with honey dressings. Fourteen babies had significant associated anomalies of which 10 died of problems unrelated to the exomphalos. Time to full feeds 6 (2-58) days; time to discharge 21(7-66) days if no associated anomalies; time to epithelialisation 73 (27-199) days. Dressings were well tolerated. Definitive closure occurred at 17(11-38) months and was uneventful. No patient required fundoplication and all patients were orally fed. Only one patient developed a clinically significant infection. CONCLUSION: This is the largest report of using Manuka honey for the management of exomphalos major. Benefits include early feeding, early discharge and a 'normalisation' of the neonatal period. Key to our success was the surgical outreach service supporting parents doing the dressings, first at the local hospital and then at home.

A single centre matched pair series comparing minimally invasive and open surgery for the resection of pediatric renal tumours.

INTRODUCTION: Minimally invasive nephrectomy (MIN)for the resection of pediatric renal tumors is controversial. We compared patients who underwent laparoscopic MIN according to our unit protocol with matched patients who underwent open surgery (ON). METHOD: A single centre retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data for MIN. Tumor volume was calculated from pre-operative imaging and volume matched ON patients were identified from the regional tumor database. Demographics, complications, operative time, length of stay, number of nodes resected, status of margins, radiotherapy (RT)requirement, length of follow-up and outcomes were analysed. RESULTS: Fourteen MINs performed between September 2016 and 11/2019 (M:F 5:9; median age 37 (range 2-73)months) were matched with ON controls (7:7 M:F, median age 42 (1-74)months). Diagnoses in the MIN group were Wilms Tumour (WT)in11 and one each of mesoblastic nephroma (MN), malignant rhabdoid tumour of the kidney (MRTK), nephroblastomatosis and in the ON group were 13 WT and 1 MN. Median operating time for MIN was 180 (125-300)minutes, with 4 conversions and 155 (1-3-480)minutes in ON. There were no intra-operative ruptures. Three tumors in each group had positive margins. A median of 4 (0-6) nodes were removed during MIN and 4 (2-22) during ON. Median length of stay (LoS)was 4 (2-15)days following MIN and 4 (2-9) following MIN. Six ON and 3 MIN patients required radiotherapy. Differences were not significant. Median follow up of 30 (6-44)months for MIN and 73 (34-109)months for ON patients was significantly different. There have been no local recurrences but the child with MRTK died following brain tumor recurrence. CONCLUSION: MIN for pediatric renal tumors has similar short term outcomes to ON in carefully selected patients.

3D Model Facilitated Zero-Ischemia Laparoscopic Nephron Sparing Resection in Nephroblastomatosis Following the Addition of Cis-Retinoic Acid.

There are limited reports of laparoscopic nephron sparing surgery (LNSS) in children and none where a 3D model facilitated oncological resection. There are also limited reports discussing the use of cis-retinoic acid in bilateral diffuse hyperplastic perilobar nephrogenic rests (DHPLNR). We report the first case of a 3D model facilitated zero-ischemia LNSS in children and the first following treatment with cis-retinoic acid. The patient was a 3-year-old girl with bilateral DHPLNR who had recurrent disease following standard therapy. She had suspicious lesions in the upper pole of the left kidney. Both were completely excised and histologically described as hyperplastic nephrogenic rests.

Paediatric laparoscopic Heller's cardiomyotomy: a single centre series.

BACKGROUND: The optimal management of oesophageal achalasia remains unclear in the paediatric population due to the rarity of the disease. This study reviews the institutional experience of the laparoscopic Heller's cardiomyotomy (HC) procedure and attempts to define the most appropriate treatment. METHODS: A retrospective review of children undergoing HC at a single institution was performed. Demographics, pre-operative investigations, and interventions were reviewed. Post-operative outcomes and follow up were evaluated. Data is expressed as median (range). RESULTS: Twenty-eight children were included (13 male, 15 female) whose median age was 13 (3.2-17.4) years. Nine children underwent a pre-operative oesophageal balloon dilatation (OBD) a median of 1(1-6) times. Others included botulinum toxin injection (n=1) and Nifedipine (n=1). All had a pre-operative upper gastrointestinal contrast series, and twenty-five had upper gastrointestinal endoscopy and manometry. All had laparoscopic HC with no conversions, and ten had a concomitant fundoplication. Post-operative intervention occurred in eight (28%) incorporating OBD (n=7), of whom four required a redo HC. One patient underwent a redo without intervening OBD. Follow-up was for a median of 0.83 (0-5) years with fourteen children discharged from surgical follow-up. Twenty-seven have thus far had a good outcome. CONCLUSION: This study comprises the largest series of paediatric laparoscopic HC reported to date. It is effective with or without a fundoplication and is the best long term treatment modality available. OBD for persisting symptoms following HC may obviate the need for redo myotomy.

Gastrostomy insertion in the 21st century: PEG or laparoscopic? Report from a large single-centre series.

PURPOSE: To determine whether laparoscopic-assisted gastrostomy (LAG) has superseded percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) based on the clinical outcomes. METHODS: A retrospective study was undertaken for the period January 06-December 09. Demographic and clinical outcomes were recorded and the two groups were compared. RESULTS: 164 patients were studied (PEG, n = 107; LAG, n = 57). 93.5 % of PEG patients required two general anaesthetics compared with 8 % of LAG patients. Median time to using the gastrostomy was 24 (range 0-168) h in PEG and 0 (0-96) h in LAG patients (p < 0.001). Major complications occurred in 15/107 (14 %) of PEG and 2/57 (3.5 %) of LAG patients (p = 0.05). Re-operation rate following complications was 18/107 (16.8 %) for PEG and 3/57 (5.2 %) for LAG (p = 0.05). Minor complications arose in 41/107 (38 %) of PEG and 32/57 (56 %) of LAG (p = 0.05). Post-operative hospital stay was 2 (1-40) days for PEG and 2 (0-20) days for LAG (p = 0.01). The day-case rate was 0/107 for PEG and 5/57 (9 %) for LAG. There was no gastrostomy-related mortality in the series. CONCLUSION: LAG requires fewer anaesthetics, is associated with shorter time to feeding, shortened hospital stay and has a reduced risk of major complications. LAG is a very good alternative to the PEG in children.

Retroperitoneal gastric duplication cyst: a case report and literature review.

A rare case of retroperitoneal gastric duplication is reported and discussed. An intra-abdominal cyst was detected at 31 weeks gestation and was followed up prenatally as a left sided duplex kidney. Post-natal ultrasound however, showed a normal kidney, but a cyst with features of enteric duplication in the left upper quadrant adjacent and compressing the kidney. Surgery was carried out during infancy and a retroperitoneal cyst was excised that contained heterotrophic gastric mucosa.

Ruptured splenic cavernous hemangioma in a neonate.

We present a case of a term neonate with hypovolemic shock after spontaneous vaginal delivery. Hemodynamic instability persisted despite resuscitation with packed red cells, fresh frozen plasma, and platelets. An ultrasound scan at 48 hours after birth followed by a computed tomographic scan demonstrated a splenic lesion and hemoperitoneum. She underwent an emergency laparotomy and splenectomy for splenic rupture. Histologic findings demonstrated a ruptured cavernous hemangioma of the spleen. Exsanguinating intraabdominal hemorrhage in the newborn infant is rare. The diagnosis and management, with particular reference to splenic cavernous hemangioma and splenic rupture, is discussed.