Respiratory Support Practices for Bronchiolitis in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit.

Importance: Admissions to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) due to bronchiolitis are increasing. Whether this increase is associated with changes in noninvasive respiratory support practices is unknown. Objective: To assess whether the number of PICU admissions for bronchiolitis between 2013 and 2022 was associated with changes in the use of high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC), noninvasive ventilation (NIV), and invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) and to identify factors associated with HFNC and NIV success and failure. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cross-sectional study examined encounter data from the Virtual Pediatric Systems database on annual PICU admissions for bronchiolitis and ventilation practices among patients aged younger than 2 years admitted to 27 PICUs between January 1, 2013, and December 31, 2022. Use of HFNC and NIV was defined as successful if patients were weaned to less invasive support (room air or low-flow nasal cannula for HFNC; room air, low-flow nasal cannula, or HFNC for NIV). Main Outcomes and Measures: The main outcome was the number of PICU admissions for bronchiolitis requiring the use of HFNC, NIV, or IMV. Linear regression was used to analyze the association between admission year and absolute numbers of encounters stratified by the maximum level of respiratory support required. Multivariable logistic regression was used to analyze factors associated with HFNC and NIV success and failure (defined as not meeting the criteria for success). Results: Included in the analysis were 33 816 encounters for patients with bronchiolitis (20 186 males [59.7%]; 1910 patients [5.6%] aged ≤28 days and 31 906 patients [94.4%] aged 29 days to <2 years) treated at 27 PICUs from 2013 to 2022. A total of 7615 of 15 518 patients (49.1%) had respiratory syncytial virus infection and 1522 of 33 816 (4.5%) had preexisting cardiac disease. Admissions to the PICU increased by 350 (95% CI, 170-531) encounters annually. When data were grouped by the maximum level of respiratory support required, HFNC use increased by 242 (95% CI, 139-345) encounters per year and NIV use increased by 126 (95% CI, 64-189) encounters per year. The use of IMV did not significantly change (10 [95% CI, -11 to 31] encounters per year). In all, 22 381 patients (81.8%) were successfully weaned from HFNC to low-flow oxygen therapy or room air, 431 (1.6%) were restarted on HFNC, 3057 (11.2%) were escalated to NIV, and 1476 (5.4%) were escalated to IMV or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO). Successful use of HFNC increased from 820 of 1027 encounters (79.8%) in 2013 to 3693 of 4399 encounters (84.0%) in 2022 (P = .002). In all, 8476 patients (81.5%) were successfully weaned from NIV, 787 (7.6%) were restarted on NIV, and 1135 (10.9%) were escalated to IMV or ECMO. Success with NIV increased from 224 of 306 encounters (73.2%) in 2013 to 1335 of 1589 encounters (84.0%) in 2022 (P < .001). In multivariable logistic regression, lower weight, higher Pediatric Risk of Mortality III score, cardiac disease, and PICU admission from outside the emergency department were associated with greater odds of HFNC and NIV failure. Conclusions and Relevance: Findings of this cross-sectional study of patients aged younger than 2 years admitted for bronchiolitis suggest there was a 3-fold increase in PICU admissions between 2013 and 2022 associated with a 4.8-fold increase in HFNC use and a 5.8-fold increase in NIV use. Further research is needed to standardize approaches to HFNC and NIV support in bronchiolitis to reduce resource strain.

Adverse Tracheal Intubation Events in Critically Ill Underweight and Obese Children: Retrospective Study of the National Emergency Airway for Children Registry (2013-2020).

OBJECTIVES: Extremes of patient body mass index are associated with difficult intubation and increased morbidity in adults. We aimed to determine the association between being underweight or obese with adverse airway outcomes, including adverse tracheal intubation (TI)-associated events (TIAEs) and/or severe peri-intubation hypoxemia (pulse oximetry oxygen saturation < 80%) in critically ill children. DESIGN/SETTING: Retrospective cohort using the National Emergency Airway for Children registry dataset of 2013-2020. PATIENTS: Critically ill children, 0 to 17 years old, undergoing TI in PICUs. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Registry data from 24,342 patients who underwent TI between 2013 and 2020 were analyzed. Patients were categorized using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention weight-for-age chart: normal weight (5th-84th percentile) 57.1%, underweight (< 5th percentile) 27.5%, overweight (85th to < 95th percentile) 7.2%, and obese (≥ 95th percentile) 8.2%. Underweight was most common in infants (34%); obesity was most common in children older than 8 years old (15.1%). Underweight patients more often had oxygenation and ventilation failure (34.0%, 36.2%, respectively) as the indication for TI and a history of difficult airway (16.7%). Apneic oxygenation was used more often in overweight and obese patients (19.1%, 19.6%) than in underweight or normal weight patients (14.1%, 17.1%; p < 0.001). TIAEs and/or hypoxemia occurred more often in underweight (27.1%) and obese (24.3%) patients ( p < 0.001). TI in underweight children was associated with greater odds of adverse airway outcome compared with normal weight children after adjusting for potential confounders (underweight: adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.09; 95% CI, 1.01-1.18; p = 0.016). Both underweight and obesity were associated with hypoxemia after adjusting for covariates and site clustering (underweight: aOR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.02-1.21; p = 0.01 and obesity: aOR, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.07-1.39; p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: In underweight and obese children compared with normal weight children, procedures around the timing of TI are associated with greater odds of adverse airway events.

Admissions for Bronchiolitis at Children's Hospitals Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Importance: The COVID-19 pandemic has been associated with a transient decrease in bronchiolitis hospitalizations compared with prepandemic patterns, but current effects remain unknown. Objective: To analyze changes in patterns of bronchiolitis admissions at US children's hospitals during the 2020-2023 bronchiolitis seasons compared with the 2010-2019 seasons. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cross-sectional study used data from 41 US children's hospitals in the Pediatric Health Information System database. Bronchiolitis has winter-predominant seasonality, so hospitalizations were grouped according to bronchiolitis season (from July through June). This study included all patients aged younger than 2 years admitted with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis between July 1, 2010, and June 30, 2023. Bronchiolitis seasons from July through June between 2010-2011 and 2019-2020 were classified as the prepandemic era, and seasons between 2020-2021 and 2022-2023 were classified as the pandemic era. Data analysis was performed from July 1, 2010, through June 30, 2023. Exposures: Admission date. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was number of hospitalizations for bronchiolitis by season and month. Monthly admission counts from the prepandemic era were transformed into time series and used to train seasonal ensemble forecasting models. Forecasts were compared to monthly admissions during the pandemic era. Results: In this study, there were 400 801 bronchiolitis admissions among 349 609 patients between July 1, 2010, and June 30, 2023. The median patient age was 6 (IQR, 2-12) months; 58.7% were boys and 43.7% were White. Hospitalizations increased gradually during the prepandemic era (median, 29 309 [IQR, 26 196-34 157]), decreased 69.2% (n = 9030) in the 2020-2021 season, and increased 75.3% (n = 51 397) in the 2022-2023 season. Patients in the pandemic era were older than those in the prepandemic era (median, 7 [IQR, 3-14] vs 6 [2-12] months; P < .001). Intensive care unit (ICU) admissions increased from 32.2% (96 245 of 298 535) in the prepandemic era to 36.7% (37 516 of 102 266) in the pandemic era (P < .001). The seasonality of bronchiolitis admissions changed during the pandemic era. Admissions peaked in August 2021 (actual 5036 vs 943 [95% CI, 0-2491] forecasted) and November 2022 (actual 10 120 vs 5268 [95% CI, 3425-7419] forecasted). These findings were unchanged in sensitivity analyses excluding children with complex chronic conditions and excluding repeat admissions. In a sensitivity analysis including all viral lower respiratory tract infections in children aged younger than 5 years, there were 66 767 admissions in 2022-2023 vs 35 623 (31 301-41 002) in the prepandemic era, with the largest increase in children aged 24 to 59 months. Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this cross-sectional study suggest that bronchiolitis hospitalizations decreased transiently and then increased markedly during the COVID-19 pandemic era. Patients admitted during the pandemic era were older and were more likely to be admitted to an ICU. These findings suggest that bronchiolitis seasonality has not yet returned to prepandemic patterns, and US hospitals should prepare for the possibility of atypical timing again in 2023.

Effect of apneic oxygenation with intubation to reduce severe desaturation and adverse tracheal intubation-associated events in critically ill children.

BACKGROUND: Determine if apneic oxygenation (AO) delivered via nasal cannula during the apneic phase of tracheal intubation (TI), reduces adverse TI-associated events (TIAEs) in children. METHODS: AO was implemented across 14 pediatric intensive care units as a quality improvement intervention during 2016-2020. Implementation consisted of an intubation safety checklist, leadership endorsement, local champion, and data feedback to frontline clinicians. Standardized oxygen flow via nasal cannula for AO was as follows: 5 L/min for infants (< 1 year), 10 L/min for young children (1-7 years), and 15 L/min for older children (≥ 8 years). Outcomes were the occurrence of adverse TIAEs (primary) and hypoxemia (SpO2 < 80%, secondary). RESULTS: Of 6549 TIs during the study period, 2554 (39.0%) occurred during the pre-implementation phase and 3995 (61.0%) during post-implementation phase. AO utilization increased from 23 to 68%, p < 0.001. AO was utilized less often when intubating infants, those with a primary cardiac diagnosis or difficult airway features, and patient intubated due to respiratory or neurological failure or shock. Conversely, AO was used more often in TIs done for procedures and those assisted by video laryngoscopy. AO utilization was associated with a lower incidence of adverse TIAEs (AO 10.5% vs. without AO 13.5%, p < 0.001), aOR 0.75 (95% CI 0.58-0.98, p = 0.03) after adjusting for site clustering (primary analysis). However, after further adjusting for patient and provider characteristics (secondary analysis), AO utilization was not independently associated with the occurrence of adverse TIAEs: aOR 0.90, 95% CI 0.72-1.12, p = 0.33 and the occurrence of hypoxemia was not different: AO 14.2% versus without AO 15.2%, p = 0.43. CONCLUSION: While AO use was associated with a lower occurrence of adverse TIAEs in children who required TI in the pediatric ICU after accounting for site-level clustering, this result may be explained by differences in patient, provider, and practice factors. Trial Registration Trial not registered.

Hemodynamic profile effects of PM101 amiodarone formulation in patients with post-operative tachyarrhythmias.

Amiodarone may be considered for patients with junctional ectopic tachycardia refractory to treatment with sedation, analgesia, cooling, and electrolyte replacements. There are currently no published pediatric data regarding the hemodynamic effects of the newer amiodarone formulation, PM101, devoid of hypotensive agents used in the original amiodarone formulation. We performed a single-center, retrospective, descriptive study from January 2012 to December 2020 in a pediatric ICU. Thirty-three patients were included (22 male and 11 female) between the ages of 1.1 and 1,460 days who developed post-operative junctional ectopic tachycardia or other tachyarrhythmias requiring PM101. Data analysis was performed on hemodynamic parameters (mean arterial pressures and heart rate) and total PM101 (mg/kg) from hour 0 of amiodarone administration to hour 72. Adverse outcomes were defined as Vasoactive-Inotropic Score >20, patients requiring ECMO or CPR, or patient death. There was no statistically significant decrease in mean arterial pressures within the 6 hours of PM101 administration (p > 0.05), but there was a statistically significant therapeutic decrease in heart rate for resolution of tachyarrhythmia (p < 0.05). Patients received up to 25 mg/kg in an 8-hour time for rate control. Average rate control was achieved within 11.91 hours and average rhythm control within 62 hours. There were four adverse events around the time of PM101 administration, with three determined to not be associated with the medication. PM101 is safe and effective in the pediatric cardiac surgical population. Our study demonstrated that PM101 can be used in a more aggressive dosing regimen than previously reported in pediatric literature with the prior formulation.

Development and internal validation of an equation using anthropometric measures to predict correct endotracheal tube insertion depth.

PURPOSE: To develop, internally validate, and assess the utility of implementing a regression model for determining endotracheal tube (ETT) insertion depth. RESEARCH METHODS: We recorded height, weight, age, sex, ETT internal diameter (ID), lip marking, and tracheal position from the electronic record from a random subset of 2,000 intubated subjects obtained from 1 January 2009 to 5 May 2012. A multivariable linear regression model was constructed and validated by a nonparametric bootstrapping technique using unrestricted random sampling methods. A prospective pilot of subjects admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit requiring invasive mechanical ventilatory support was conducted from 7 January 2019 to 31 May 2019. Those with spinal and/or skeletal malformations, without a post-intubation chest-x-ray (CXR) order, or whose CXR quality impaired visualizing the carina and ETT tip, were excluded. The validated regression equation determined insertion depth. CXR following intubation determined ETT position. Demographic data were summarized. Two-tailed, one-sample binomial test of proportions assessed differences in the proportion of correct position by the equation. MAIN FINDINGS: Four hundred and seventy-seven subjects included in model construction yielded 10,000 independent samples for internal validation; 55% were female, and the mean age (SD) was 47 (63) months. Bias between bootstrap coefficients and refined model estimates were negligible (P < 0.01). Eleven subjects in the pilot were female (64%), mean age (SD) of 36.7 (38) months. Four protocol violations (36.4%) resulted in malposition. Subsequent repositioning per protocol resulted in 100% correct positioning (P = 0.01). CONCLUSION: The regression equation [0.8636 * (Ht. 0.6223)] facilitated correct ETT placement. A larger, diverse sample is required for external model validation.

Intubation practice and outcomes among pediatric emergency departments: A report from National Emergency Airway Registry for Children (NEAR4KIDS).

BACKGROUND: Tracheal intubation (TI) practice across pediatric emergency departments (EDs) has not been comprehensively reported. We aim to describe TI practice and outcomes in pediatric EDs in contrast to those in intensive are units (ICUs) and use the data to identify quality improvement targets. METHODS: Consecutive TI encounters from pediatric EDs and ICUs in the National Emergency Airway Registry for Children (NEAR4KIDS) database from 2015 to 2018 were analyzed for patient, provider, and practice characteristics and outcomes: adverse TI-associated events (TIAEs), oxygen desaturation (SpO2 < 80%), and procedural success. A multivariable model identified factors associated with TIAEs in the ED. RESULTS: A total of 756 TIs in 13 pediatric EDs and 12,512 TIs in 51 pediatric/cardiac ICUs were reported. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) patient age for ED TIs was higher (32 [7-108] months) than that for ICU TIs (15 [3-91] months; p < 0.001). Proportion of TIs for respiratory decompensation (52% of ED vs. 64% ICU), shock (26% vs. 14%), and neurologic deterioration (30% vs. 11%) also differed by location. Limited neck mobility was reported more often in the ED (16% vs. 6%). TIs in the ED were performed more often via video laryngoscopy (64% vs. 29%). Adverse TIAE rates (15.6% ED, 14% ICU; absolute difference = 1.6%, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -1.1 to 4.2; p = 0.23) and severe TIAE rates (5.4% ED, 5.8% ICU; absolute difference = -0.3%, 95% CI = -2.0 to 1.3; p = 0.68) were not different. Oxygen desaturation was less commonly reported in ED TIs (13.6%) than ICU TIs (17%, absolute difference = -3.4%, 95% CI = -5.9 to -0.8; p = 0.016). Among ED TIs, shock as an indication (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 2.15, 95% CI = 1.26 to 3.65) and limited mouth opening (aOR = 1.74, 95% CI = 1.04 to 2.93) were independently associated with TIAEs. CONCLUSIONS: While TI characteristics vary between pediatric EDs and ICUs, outcomes are similar. Shock and limited mouth opening were independently associated with adverse TI events in the ED.

Difficult Bag-Mask Ventilation in Critically Ill Children Is Independently Associated With Adverse Events.

OBJECTIVES: Bag-mask ventilation is commonly used prior to tracheal intubation; however, the epidemiology, risk factors, and clinical implications of difficult bag-mask ventilation among critically ill children are not well studied. This study aims to describe prevalence and risk factors for pediatric difficult bag-mask ventilation as well as its association with adverse tracheal intubation-associated events and oxygen desaturation in PICU patients. DESIGN: A retrospective review of prospectively collected observational data from a multicenter tracheal intubation database (National Emergency Airway Registry for Children) from January 2013 to December 2018. SETTING: Forty-six international PICUs. PATIENTS: Children receiving bag-mask ventilation as a part of tracheal intubation in a PICU. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The primary outcome is the occurrence of either specific tracheal intubation-associated events (hemodynamic tracheal intubation-associated events, emesis with/without aspiration) and/or oxygen desaturation (< 80%). Factors associated with perceived difficult bag-mask ventilation were found using univariate analyses, and multivariable logistic regression identified an independent association between bag-mask ventilation difficulty and the primary outcome. Difficult bag-mask ventilation is reported in 9.5% (n = 1,501) of 15,810 patients undergoing tracheal intubation with bag-mask ventilation during the study period. Difficult bag-mask ventilation is more commonly reported with increasing age, those with a primary respiratory diagnosis/indication for tracheal intubation, presence of difficult airway features, more experienced provider level, and tracheal intubations without use of neuromuscular blockade (p < 0.001). Specific tracheal intubation-associated events or oxygen desaturation events occurred in 40.2% of patients with reported difficult bag-mask ventilation versus 19.8% in patients without perceived difficult bag-mask ventilation (p < 0.001). The presence of difficult bag-mask ventilation is independently associated with an increased risk of the primary outcome: odds ratio, 2.28 (95% CI, 2.03-2.57; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Difficult bag-mask ventilation is reported in approximately one in 10 PICU patients undergoing tracheal intubation. Given its association with adverse procedure-related events and oxygen desaturation, future study is warranted to improve preprocedural planning and real-time management strategies.

Ketamine Use for Tracheal Intubation in Critically Ill Children Is Associated With a Lower Occurrence of Adverse Hemodynamic Events.

OBJECTIVES: Tracheal intubation in critically ill children with shock poses a risk of hemodynamic compromise. Ketamine has been considered the drug of choice for induction in these patients, but limited data exist. We investigated whether the administration of ketamine for tracheal intubation in critically ill children with or without shock was associated with fewer adverse hemodynamic events compared with other induction agents. We also investigated if there was a dose dependence for any association between ketamine use and adverse hemodynamic events. DESIGN: We performed a retrospective analysis using prospectively collected observational data from the National Emergency Airway Registry for Children database from 2013 to 2017. SETTING: Forty international PICUs participating in the National Emergency Airway Registry for Children. PATIENTS: Critically ill children 0-17 years old who underwent tracheal intubation in a PICU. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The association between ketamine exposure as an induction agent and the occurrence of adverse hemodynamic events during tracheal intubation including dysrhythmia, hypotension, and cardiac arrest was evaluated. We used multivariable logistic regression to account for patient, provider, and practice factors with robust SEs to account for clustering by sites. Of 10,750 tracheal intubations, 32.0% (n = 3,436) included ketamine as an induction agent. The most common diagnoses associated with ketamine use were sepsis and/or shock (49.7%). After adjusting for potential confounders and sites, ketamine use was associated with fewer hemodynamic tracheal intubation associated adverse events compared with other agents (adjusted odds ratio, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.58-0.95). The interaction term between ketamine use and indication for shock was not significant (p = 0.11), indicating ketamine effect to prevent hemodynamic adverse events is consistent in children with or without shock. CONCLUSIONS: Ketamine use for tracheal intubation is associated with fewer hemodynamic tracheal intubation-associated adverse events.

Correlation of Bedside Pediatric Early Warning System Score to Interventions During Peritransport Period.

BACKGROUND: The Bedside Pediatric Early Warning System score is a validated measure of severity of illness in acute care inpatient settings. Its potential as a remote assessment tool for interfacility transport has not been evaluated. We hypothesized that the Bedside Pediatric Early Warning System score was associated with need for intervention during the peritransport period and patient disposition. METHODS: We retrospectively evaluated children transported by a regional pediatric team during a 6-month period. Bedside Pediatric Early Warning System scores were calculated at the triage phone call, the transport team arrival, and at transfer of care to the hospital team. The primary outcome was the receipt of significant intervention during the peritransport period, with additional outcomes of destination (ICU, ward, emergency department) in the regional hospital. Scores are presented as median values (interquartile range). RESULTS: There were 564 children who underwent transport; 139 (25%) received interventions; and 205 (36%) were transferred to the PICU, 231 (41%) to the ward, and 127 (23%) to the emergency department. Scores were 2 (1-5; median interquartile range) in children receiving no in-transport interventions, 8 (5-11) in children receiving any intervention (p < 0.001), and 10 (7-14) in children receiving more than one intervention. Children transferred to the PICU had higher scores 6 (3-10), than children transferred to a ward 3 (1-6) or the emergency department 2 (1-3) (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The Bedside Pediatric Early Warning System score at the time of initial referral is a useful measure of severity of illness reflected by the subsequent provision of significant peritransport intervention and the transfer destination.