Serum antibodies to the HPV16 proteome as biomarkers for head and neck cancer.

BACKGROUND: Human papillomavirus (HPV) type 16 is associated with oropharyngeal carcinomas (OPC). Antibodies (Abs) to HPV16 E6 and E7 oncoproteins have been detected in patient sera; however, Abs to other early HPV-derived proteins have not been well explored. METHODS: Antibodies to the HPV16 proteome were quantified using a novel multiplexed bead assay, using C-terminal GST-fusion proteins captured onto Luminex beads. Sera were obtained from untreated patients with OPC (N=40), partners of patients with HPV16+ OPC (N=11), and healthy controls (N=50). RESULTS: Oropharyngeal carcinomas patients with known virus-like capsid particle+ Abs had elevated serum Abs to HPV16 E1, E2, E4, E6, and E7, and L1 antibody levels, but not E5. The ratios of specific median fluorescence intensity to p21-GST compared with controls were E1: 50.7 vs 2.1; E4: 14.6 vs 1.3; E6: 11.3 vs 2.4; E7: 43.1 vs 2.6; and L1: 10.3 vs 2.6 (each P≤0.01). In a validation cohort, HPV16 E1, E2, and E7 antibody levels were significantly elevated compared with healthy control samples (P≤0.02) and partners of OPC patients (P≤0.01). CONCLUSION: Patients with HPV16+ OPC have detectable Abs to E1, E2, and E7 proteins, which are potential biomarkers for HPV-associated OPC.

Innovative DNA vaccine for human papillomavirus (HPV)-associated head and neck cancer.

Human papillomavirus (HPV), particularly type 16, has been associated with a subset of head and neck cancers. The viral-encoded oncogenic proteins E6 and E7 represent ideal targets for immunotherapy against HPV-associated head and neck cancers. DNA vaccines have emerged as attractive approaches for immunotherapy due to its simplicity, safety and ease of preparation. Intradermal administration of DNA vaccine by means of gene gun represents an efficient method to deliver DNA directly into dendritic cells for priming antigen-specific T cells. We have previously shown that a DNA vaccine encoding an invariant chain (Ii), in which the class II-associated Ii peptide (CLIP) region has been replaced by a Pan-DR-epitope (PADRE) sequence to form Ii-PADRE, is capable of generating PADRE-specific CD4+ T cells in vaccinated mice. In the current study, we hypothesize that a DNA vaccine encoding Ii-PADRE linked to E6 (Ii-PADRE-E6) will further enhance E6-specific CD8+ T cell immune responses through PADRE-specific CD4+ T-helper cells. We found that mice vaccinated with Ii-PADRE-E6 DNA generated comparable levels of PADRE-specific CD4+ T-cell immune responses, as well as significantly stronger E6-specific CD8+ T-cell immune responses and antitumor effects against the lethal challenge of E6-expressing tumor compared with mice vaccinated with Ii-E6 DNA. Taken together, our data indicate that vaccination with Ii-E6 DNA with PADRE replacing the CLIP region is capable of enhancing the E6-specific CD8+ T-cell immune response generated by the Ii-E6 DNA. Thus, Ii-PADRE-E6 represents a novel DNA vaccine for the treatment of HPV-associated head and neck cancer and other HPV-associated malignancies.

Enhancing DNA vaccine potency by co-administration of xenogenic MHC class-I DNA.

Intramuscular administration of DNA vaccines can lead to the generation of antigen-specific immune responses through cross-priming mechanisms. We propose a strategy that is capable of leading to local inflammation and enhancing cross-priming, thus resulting in improved antigen-specific immune responses. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the immunological responses elicited through electroporation-mediated intramuscular administration of a DNA vaccine encoding calreticulin (CRT) linked to human papillomavirus type 16 E7 (CRT-E7) in combination with DNA expressing HLA-A2 as compared with CRT-E7 DNA vaccination alone. We found that the co-administration of a DNA vaccine in conjunction with a DNA encoding a xenogenic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule could significantly enhance the E7-specific CD8+ T-cell immune responses and antitumor effects against an E7-expressing tumor, TC-1, in C57BL/6 tumor-bearing mice. Furthermore, a similar enhancement in E7-specific immune responses was observed by the co-administration of CRT-E7 DNA with DNA encoding other types of xenogenic MHC class-I molecules. This strategy was also applicable to another antigenic system, ovalbumin. Further characterization of the injection site revealed that the co-administration of HLA-A2 DNA led to a significant increase in the number of infiltrating CD8+ T lymphocytes and CD11b/c+ antigen-presenting cells. Furthermore, the E7-specific immune responses generated by intramuscular co-administration of CRT-E7 with HLA-A2 DNA were reduced in HLA-A2 transgenic mice. Thus, our data suggest that intramuscular co-administration of DNA encoding xenogenic MHC class-I can further improve the antigen-specific immune responses, as well as antitumor effects generated by DNA vaccines through enhancement of cross-priming mechanisms.

Prospects of RNA interference therapy for cancer.

RNA interference (RNAi) is a powerful gene-silencing process that holds great promise in the field of cancer therapy. The discovery of RNAi has generated enthusiasm within the scientific community, not only because it has been used to rapidly identify key molecules involved in many disease processes including cancer, but also because RNAi has the potential to be translated into a technology with major therapeutic applications. Our evolving understanding of the molecular pathways important for carcinogenesis has created opportunities for cancer therapy employing RNAi technology to target the key molecules within these pathways. Many gene products involved in carcinogenesis have already been explored as targets for RNAi intervention, and RNAi targeting of molecules crucial for tumor-host interactions and tumor resistance to chemo- or radiotherapy has also been investigated. In most of these studies, the silencing of critical gene products by RNAi technology has generated significant antiproliferative and/or proapoptotic effects in cell-culture systems or in preclinical animal models. Nevertheless, significant obstacles, such as in vivo delivery, incomplete suppression of target genes, nonspecific immune responses and the so-called off-target effects, need to be overcome before this technology can be successfully translated into the clinical arena. Significant progress has already been made in addressing some of these issues, and it is foreseen that early phase clinical trials will be initiated in the very near future.

Comparison of HPV DNA vaccines employing intracellular targeting strategies.

Intradermal vaccination via gene gun efficiently delivers DNA vaccines into dendritic cells (DCs) of the skin, resulting in the activation and priming of antigen-specific T cells in vivo. In the context of DNA vaccines, we previously used the gene gun approach to test several intracellular targeting strategies that are able to route a model antigen, such as the human papillomavirus type-16 (HPV-16) E7, to desired subcellular compartments in order to enhance antigen processing and presentation to T cells. These strategies include the use of the sorting signal of lysosome-associated membrane protein (LAMP-1), Mycobacterium tuberculosis heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70), calreticulin (CRT) and the translocation domain (dII) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A (ETA). Vaccination with DNA vaccines encoding E7 antigen linked to any of these molecules all led to a significant enhancement of E7-specific CD8(+) T-cell immune responses and strong antitumor effects against an E7-expressing tumor, TC-1. However, we were interested in identifying the most potent DNA vaccine for our future clinical trials. Thus, we performed a series of experiments to directly compare the potency of the various DNA vaccines. Among the DNA vaccines we tested, we found that vaccination with pcDNA3-CRT/E7 generated the highest number of E7-specific CD8(+) T cells and potent long-term protection and treatment effects against E7-expressing tumors in mice. Interestingly, we observed that pcDNA3-CRT/E7 is also capable of protecting against an E7-expressing tumor with downregulated MHC class I expression, a common feature associated with most HPV-associated cervical cancers. Our data suggest that the DNA vaccine linking CRT to E7 (CRT/E7) may be a suitable candidate for human trials for the control of HPV infections and HPV-associated lesions.

B7-DC, a new dendritic cell molecule with potent costimulatory properties for T cells.

Dendritic cells (DCs), unique antigen-presenting cells (APCs) with potent T cell stimulatory capacity, direct the activation and differentiation of T cells by providing costimulatory signals. As such, they are critical regulators of both natural and vaccine-induced immune responses. A new B7 family member, B7-DC, whose expression is highly restricted to DCs, was identified among a library of genes differentially expressed between DCs and activated macrophages. B7-DC fails to bind the B7.1/2 receptors CD28 and cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen (CTLA)-4, but does bind PD-1, a receptor for B7-H1/PD-L1. B7-DC costimulates T cell proliferation more efficiently than B7.1 and induces a distinct pattern of lymphokine secretion. In particular, B7-DC strongly costimulates interferon gamma but not interleukin (IL)-4 or IL-10 production from isolated naive T cells. These properties of B7-DC may account for some of the unique activity of DCs, such as their ability to initiate potent T helper cell type 1 responses.

Detection and quantitation of human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA in the sera of patients with HPV-associated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.

The human papillomavirus (HPV) has been implicated as an etiological factor in a subset of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). Because circulating tumor DNA has previously been detected in the sera of patients with advanced HNSCC (stage III or IV), we hypothesized that HPV DNA might be present in the sera of HPV-positive HNSCC patients. Serum DNA extracts from 70 patients with HNSCC were screened for HPV using conventional PCR and a real-time quantitative assay. All samples subjected to conventional PCR were further tested by dot blot hybridization, and positives were confirmed by Southern blotting. Paired tumor DNA from archived tissues was then similarly screened for HPV genomic material (n = 51) or tested by in situ hybridization (n = 19). HPV-16 DNA was detected with L1 primers in 0 of 65 sera and in 15 of 70 (21%) tumors. Conventional PCR with E7 primers and Southern blot hybridization detected HPV-16 DNA in four (6%) sera. Using real-time quantitative PCR, six samples were found to contain various levels of circulating HPV DNA (mean, 12 copies/ml; range, <1-35.) All six serum-positive patients had corresponding tumors positive for E7. Four of these patients with HPV-positive tumors later developed distant metastases, suggesting that HPV DNA in serum may represent occult hematogenous spread of cancer cells in this subset of patients. Although a much larger prospective trial is required, the presence of HPV genomic material in serum DNA of HPV-positive HNSCC patients may serve as a useful marker of early metastatic disease.

Intramuscular administration of E7-transfected dendritic cells generates the most potent E7-specific anti-tumor immunity.

Dendritic cells (DCs) are highly efficient antigen-presenting cells capable of priming both cytotoxic and helper T cells in vivo. Recent studies have demonstrated the potential use of DCs that are modified to carry tumor-specific antigens in cancer vaccines. However, the optimal administration route of DC-based vaccines to generate the greatest anti-tumor effect remains to be determined. This study is aimed at comparing the levels of immune responses and anti-tumor effect generated through different administration routes of DC-based vaccination. We chose the E7 gene product of human papillomavirus (HPV) as the model antigen and generated a stable DC line (designated as DC-E7) that constitutively expresses the E7 gene. Among the three different routes of DC-E7 vaccine administration in a murine model, we found that intramuscular administration generated the greatest anti-tumor immunity compared with subcutaneous and intravenous routes of administration. Furthermore, intramuscular administration of DC-E7 elicited the highest levels of E7-specific antibody and greatest numbers of E7-specific CD4+ T helper and CD8+ T cell precursors. Our results indicate that the potency of DC-based vaccines depends on the specific route of administration and that intramuscular administration of E7-transfected DCs generates the most potent E7-specific anti-tumor immunity.

Targeting human papillomavirus type 16 E7 to the endosomal/lysosomal compartment enhances the antitumor immunity of DNA vaccines against murine human papillomavirus type 16 E7-expressing tumors.

DNA vaccination is an attractive approach for tumor immunotherapy because of its stability and simplicity of delivery. Advances demonstrate that helper T cell responses play a critical role in initiating immune responses. The aim of the current study is to test whether targeting HPV-16 E7 to the endosomal/lysosomal compartment can enhance the potency of DNA vaccines. We linked the lysosome-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1) to HPV-E7 to construct a chimeric DNA, Sig/E7/LAMP-1 DNA. For in vivo tumor prevention experiments, mice were vaccinated with E7 DNA or Sig/E7/LAMP-1 DNA via gene gun, followed by tumor challenge. For in vivo tumor regression experiments, mice were first challenged with tumor cells and then vaccinated with E7-DNA or Sig/E7/LAMP-1 DNA. Intracellular cytokine staining with flow cytometry analysis, cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) assays, enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA), and enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assays were used for in vitro E7-specific immunological studies. In both tumor prevention and tumor regression assays, Sig/E7/LAMP-1 DNA generated greater antitumor immunity than did wild-type E7 DNA. In addition, mice vaccinated with Sig/E7/LAMP-1 DNA had greater numbers of E7-specific CD4+ helper T cells, higher E7-specific CTL activity, and greater numbers of CD8+ T cell precursors than did mice vaccinated with Sig/E7 or wild-type E7 DNA. Sig/E7 generated a stronger E7-specific antibody response than did Sig/E7/LAMP-1 or wild-type E7 DNA. Our results indicate that linkage of the antigen gene to an endosomal/lysosomal targeting signal may greatly enhance the potency of DNA vaccines.

Rare loss-of-function mutation of a death receptor gene in head and neck cancer.

The chromosomal region 8p21 contains a number of putative tumor suppressor genes and is a frequent site of translocations in head and neck cancers. Recently, a novel tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) death receptor gene, KILLER/DR5, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor family, was identified as a potential mediator in p53-dependent apoptosis and mapped to 8p21 by fluorescence in situ hybridization. We have determined the genomic structure of KILLER/DR5 and performed sequence analysis of all 10 coding exons in 20 primary head and neck cancers with allelic loss of chromosome 8p. To screen for a subset of mutations localized to the functional cytoplasmic death domain, we sequenced this region in an additional 40 primary head and neck cancers. We found two alterations in this domain, including a 2-bp insertion at a minimal repeat site, introducing a premature stop codon and resulting in a truncated protein. This KILLER/DR5 mutation was also present in the germ line of the affected patient, and the tumor did not have a p53 mutation by sequence analysis. Transfection studies in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma and colon and ovarian carcinoma cell lines revealed loss of growth-suppressive function associated with the tumor-derived KILLER/DR5 truncation mutant. These observations provide the first evidence for mutation of a TRAIL death receptor gene in a human cancer, leading to loss of its apoptotic function.

Absence of TSG101 transcript abnormalities in human cancers.

The human TSG101 gene was cloned and mapped to chromosome 11p15, a site suspected to contain a tumor suppressor gene involved in a variety of human cancers. Subsequent investigation described the presence of abnormally spliced transcripts and point mutations of TSG101 in breast cancer. Thus, we performed RT-PCR amplification of the entire open reading frame of TSG101 to test for aberrant transcripts in various human tumor cell lines derived from breast, bladder, head and neck, and lung cancer. In addition, we performed RT-PCR on cDNA from primary human breast and Wilms' tumor tissue. We found a single band of the expected size in 10 of 11 breast cancers and 6 of 6 Wilms' tumor samples after the first round of PCR. The remaining breast cancer sample displayed a barely visible smaller band. However, aberrant bands appeared in most cases after performing nested PCR casting doubt on the physiologic relevance of these spliced variants. We then searched for small intragenic mutations by complete sequence analysis of TSG101 in breast cancer cell lines and tumors, as well as in Wilms' tumors and normal fetal and adult kidney. No point mutations were found in any of the samples, including four breast tumors with chromosomal loss at 11p15. We found no consistent evidence of aberrant splicing or point mutations in breast cancer or Wilms' tumor suggesting that TSG101 is not a primary target of inactivation in human cancer.

Products of vasopressin gene expression in small-cell carcinoma of the lung.

Small-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the lung is known to express products related to the vasopressin gene, although these products have been reported to sometimes differ from those generated by neurones of the hypothalamo-neurohypophyseal system. To further investigate vasopressin gene expression in neuroendocrine carcinomas, we performed immunohistochemistry on 24 histologically classified small-cell carcinomas using antibodies directed against different regions of the vasopressin precursor. All of the tumours examined contained at least two parts of the vasopressin precursor, suggesting that vasopressin might have a biological role in these tumours and indicating a role for these products in tumour diagnosis and treatment. Sixty-seven per cent of the tumours contained immunoreactivity for all major regions of the precursor: vasopressin, vasopressin-associated human neurophysin, the bridging region between the hormone and the neurophysin, and vasopressin-associated human glycopeptide. However, 33% of the tumours examined appeared to express only part of the vasopressin precursor, as evidenced by the absence of immunoreactivity for the neurophysin and/or the glycopeptide. These results support the proposition that both normal and abnormal vasopressin gene expression occurs in small-cell carcinoma of the lung.