Repolarization of tumor infiltrating macrophages and increased survival in mouse primary CNS lymphomas after XPO1 and BTK inhibition.

BACKGROUND: Patients diagnosed with primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL) often face dismal outcomes due to the limited availability of therapeutic options. PCNSL cells frequently have deregulated B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling, but clinical responses to its inhibition using ibrutinib have been brief. In this regard, blocking nuclear export by using selinexor, which covalently binds to XPO1, can also inhibit BCR signaling. Selinexor crosses the blood-brain barrier and was recently shown to have clinical activity in a patient with refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma in the CNS. We studied selinexor alone or in combination with ibrutinib in pre-clinical mouse models of PCNSL. METHODS: Orthotopic xenograft models were established by injecting lymphoma cells into the brain parenchyma of athymic mice. Tumor growth was monitored by bioluminescence. Malignant cells and macrophages were studied by immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry. RESULTS: Selinexor blocked tumor growth and prolonged survival in a bioluminescent mouse model, while its combination with ibrutinib further increased survival. CNS lymphoma in mice was infiltrated by tumor-promoting M2-like macrophages expressing PD-1 and SIRPα. Interestingly, treatment with selinexor and ibrutinib favored an anti-tumoral immune response by shifting polarization toward inflammatory M1-like and diminishing PD-1 and SIRPα expression in the remaining tumor-promoting M2-like macrophages. CONCLUSIONS: These data highlight the pathogenic role of the innate immune microenvironment in PCNSL and provide pre-clinical evidence for the development of selinexor and ibrutinib as a new promising therapeutic option with cytotoxic and immunomodulatory potential.

Microenvironment regulates the expression of miR-21 and tumor suppressor genes PTEN, PIAS3 and PDCD4 through ZAP-70 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells are highly dependent on microenvironment, being the BCR pathway one key player in this crosstalk. Among proteins participating, ZAP-70 enhances response to microenvironmental stimuli. MicroRNA-21 (miR-21) is overexpressed in diverse neoplasias including CLL, where it has been associated to refractoriness to fludarabine and to shorter time to progression and survival. To further elucidate the role of ZAP-70 in the biology of CLL, we studied its involvement in miR-21 regulation. MiR-21 expression was higher in CLL cells with high ZAP-70. Ectopic expression of ZAP-70 induced transcription of miR-21 via MAPK and STAT3, which subsequently induced downregulation of tumor suppressors targeted by miR-21. The co-culture of primary CLL cells mimicking the microenvironment induced ZAP-70 and miR-21 expression, as well as downregulation of miR-21 targets. Interestingly, the increase in miR-21 after co-culture was significantly impaired by ibrutinib, indicating that the BCR signaling pathway is involved in its regulation. Finally, survival of CLL cells induced by the co-culture correlated with miR-21 upregulation. In conclusion, stimuli from the microenvironment regulate miR-21 and its targeted tumor suppressor genes via a signaling pathway involving ZAP-70, thus contributing to the cytoprotection offered by the microenvironment particularly observed in CLL cells expressing ZAP-70.

Inhibition of BCR signaling using the Syk inhibitor TAK-659 prevents stroma-mediated signaling in chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells.

Proliferation and survival of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells depend on microenvironmental signals coming from lymphoid organs. One of the key players involved in the crosstalk between CLL cells and the microenvironment is the B-cell receptor (BCR). Syk protein, a tyrosine kinase essential for BCR signaling, is therefore a rational candidate for targeted therapy in CLL. Against this background, we tested the efficacy of the highly specific Syk inhibitor TAK-659 in suppressing the favorable signaling derived from the microenvironment. To ex vivo mimic the microenvironment found in the proliferation centers, we co-cultured primary CLL cells with BM stromal cells (BMSC), CD40L and CpG ODN along with BCR stimulation. In this setting, TAK-659 inhibited the microenvironment-induced activation of Syk and downstream signaling molecules, without inhibiting the protein homologue ZAP-70 in T cells. Importantly, the pro-survival, proliferative, chemoresistant and activation effects promoted by the microenvironment were abrogated by TAK-659, which furthermore blocked CLL cell migration toward BMSC, CXCL12, and CXCL13. Combination of TAK-659 with other BCR inhibitors showed synergistic effect in inducing apoptosis, and the sequential addition of TAK-659 in ibrutinib-treated CLL cells induced significantly higher cytotoxicity. These findings provide a strong rationale for the clinical development of TAK-659 in CLL.

Co-culture of primary CLL cells with bone marrow mesenchymal cells, CD40 ligand and CpG ODN promotes proliferation of chemoresistant CLL cells phenotypically comparable to those proliferating in vivo.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells residing in the bone marrow (BM) and in secondary lymphoid tissues receive survival and proliferative signals from the microenvironment, resulting in persistence of residual disease after treatment. In this study, we characterized primary CLL cells cultured with BM stromal cells, CD40 ligand and CpG ODN to partially mimic the microenvironment in the proliferative centers. This co-culture system induced proliferation and chemoresistance in primary CLL cells. Importantly, co-cultured primary CLL cells shared many phenotypical features with circulating proliferative CLL cells, such as upregulation of ZAP-70 and CD38 and higher CD49d and CD62L expression. This indicates aggressiveness and capability to interact with surrounding cells, respectively. In addition, levels of CXCR4 were decreased due to CXCR4 internalization after CXCL12 stimulation by BM stromal cells. We suggest that this co-culture system can be used to test drugs and their combinations that target the proliferative and drug resistant CLL cells.

ZAP-70 promotes the infiltration of malignant B-lymphocytes into the bone marrow by enhancing signaling and migration after CXCR4 stimulation.

ZAP-70 in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is associated with enhanced response to microenvironmental stimuli. We analyzed the functional consequences of ZAP-70 ectopic expression in malignant B-cells in a xenograft mouse model of disseminated B-cell leukemia. Mice injected with B-cells expressing ZAP-70 showed a prominently higher infiltration of the bone marrow. In vitro analysis of the response of malignant B-cells to CXCL12, the main attracting chemokine regulating trafficking of lymphocytes to the bone marrow, or to bone marrow stromal cells, revealed that ZAP-70 induces an increased response in terms of signaling and migration. These effects are probably mediated by direct participation of ZAP-70 in CXCL12-CXCR4 signaling since CXCR4 stimulation led to activation of ZAP-70 and downstream signaling pathways, such as MAPK and Akt, whereas ZAP-70 did not alter the expression of the CXCR4 receptor. In addition, subclones of primary CLL cells with high expression of ZAP-70 also showed increased migrative capacity toward CXCL12. Neutralization of CXCR4 with a monoclonal antibody resulted in impaired in vitro responses to CXCL12 and bone marrow stromal cells. We conclude that ZAP-70 enhances the migration of malignant B-cells into the supportive microenvironment found in the bone marrow mainly by enhancing signaling and migration after CXCR4 stimulation.

An eight-gene blood expression profile predicts the response to infliximab in rheumatoid arthritis.

BACKGROUND: TNF alpha blockade agents like infliximab are actually the treatment of choice for those rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients who fail standard therapy. However, a considerable percentage of anti-TNF alpha treated patients do not show a significant clinical response. Given that new therapies for treatment of RA have been recently approved, there is a pressing need to find a system that reliably predicts treatment response. We hypothesized that the analysis of whole blood gene expression profiles of RA patients could be used to build a robust predictor to infliximab therapy. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We performed microarray gene expression analysis on whole blood RNA samples from RA patients starting infliximab therapy (n = 44). The clinical response to infliximab was determined at week 14 using the EULAR criteria. Blood cell populations were determined using flow cytometry at baseline, week 2 and week 14 of treatment. Using complete cross-validation and repeated random sampling we identified a robust 8-gene predictor model (96.6% Leave One Out prediction accuracy, P = 0.0001). Applying this model to an independent validation set of RA patients, we estimated an 85.7% prediction accuracy (75-100%, 95% CI). In parallel, we also observed a significantly higher number of CD4+CD25+ cells (i.e. regulatory T cells) in the responder group compared to the non responder group at baseline (P = 0.0009). CONCLUSIONS: The present 8-gene model obtained from whole blood expression efficiently predicts response to infliximab in RA patients. The application of the present system in the clinical setting could assist the clinician in the selection of the optimal treatment strategy in RA.

Identification of candidate genes for rituximab response in rheumatoid arthritis patients by microarray expression profiling in blood cells.

AIMS: Transient CD20+ B-cell depletion with rituximab is an effective treatment for rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, there is a subgroup of patients that do not show significant clinical response to rituximab and for these patients, other modes of treatment are preferred. Finding biomarkers for drug response in RA has immense potential for improving treatment and lowering healthcare costs for treating RA patients by facilitating the optimization of their pharmacotherapy. In the present study, we report on gene expression profiles of three different blood cell types in rituximab responders and nonresponder RA patients identifying new candidate genes associated with rituximab response. MATERIALS & METHODS: Transcriptional profiles of whole-blood, CD4+ T cells and B cells were analyzed from nine female patients (mean age 53 +/- 11 years) with active RA disease (DAS28 > 5.1), starting rituximab therapy using Illumina (CA, USA) gene-expression microarrays. Whole-blood RNA was extracted using the PAXgene system (PreAnalytix, Hombrechtikon, Switzerland) whilst the lymphocyte RNA was obtained following cell isolation using negative selection. Flow cytometry analysis was performed to determine whole blood subpopulations, as well as the lymphocyte isolation purity. A whole-genome expression profiling was performed on the RNA samples prepared from the three blood cell populations using the Illumina Human 6 Beadchip array system version 1 (Illumina). From the group of statistically significant genes showing differential expression in rituximab responders compared with nonresponder RA patients, we selected a group of candidate genes that were subsequently validated in the same RNA samples using TaqMan real-time PCR assays. RESULTS: Several genes were identified whose level of expression is associated significantly with the response to rituximab in all three blood cell types evaluated (multiple-test corrected p-value < 0.05). Real-time PCR-validated genes include ARG1 (1.6-fold downregulated in responders) and TRAF1 (1.4-fold upregulated in responders) genes in whole blood and TLR4 (1.3-fold upregulated in responders) in CD4+ T cells. CONCLUSIONS: The present study is the first gene expression microarray analysis reporting on biomarkers of the clinical response to rituximab in RA in blood cells. Following validation in larger cohorts, the identified genes may serve as biomarkers for treatment choice in RA.

Assessment of the markers of platelet and coagulation activation following transcatheter closure of atrial septal defects.

BACKGROUND: Aspirin has been routinely prescribed following transcatheter closure of secundum atrial septal defects (ASDs) but its rationale has not been clinically or biologically evaluated; and despite aspirin, thrombotic complications occur following transcatheter ASD closure. We therefore evaluated the presence, degree and timing of the activation of the coagulation and platelet systems following transcatheter closure of ASDs. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fourteen consecutive patients (9 females, mean age 41+/-22 years) who underwent successful transcatheter closure of an ASD defect with the Amplatzer septal occluder were prospectively studied. Measurements of the prothrombin fragment 1+2 (F1+2) levels and the percentage of activated platelets (determined by P-selectin expression detected by flow cytometry) were taken at baseline just before the procedure, and at 1, 7, 30 and 90 days following device implantation. F1+2 levels increased from 0.85+/-0.29 nmol/l at baseline to a maximal value of 1.20+/-0.52 nmol/l at 7 days, gradually returning to the baseline levels at 90 days (0.79+/-0.54 nmol/l) (p<0.001). F1+2 levels at 7 days were also significantly higher than those obtained in a control group of 20 healthy subjects (p=0.016). A greater increase in coagulation activation was observed in cases of residual shunt following ASD closure (r=0.53, p=0.050). No significant variations in the percentage of platelets expressing P-selectin were detected at any time. CONCLUSIONS: Transcatheter closure of ASDs with the Amplatzer septal occluder was associated with a significant increase in F1+2 levels during the first week after device implantation, but there was no detectable effect on platelet system activation. These findings raise the question whether the optimal prophylactic approach following transcatheter ASD closure should be anticoagulant instead of antiplatelet therapy.