New Insights into the Evolution and Gene Structure of the Mitochondrial Carrier Family Unveiled by Analyzing the Frequent and Conserved Intron Positions.

Mitochondrial carriers (MCs) belong to a eukaryotic protein family of transporters that in higher organisms is called the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25). All MCs have characteristic triplicated sequence repeats forming a 3-fold symmetrical structure of a six-transmembrane α-helix bundle with a centrally located substrate-binding site. Biochemical characterization has shown that MCs altogether transport a wide variety of substrates but can be divided into subfamilies, each transporting a few specific substrates. We have investigated the intron positions in the human MC genes and their orthologs of highly diversified organisms. The results demonstrate that several intron positions are present in numerous MC sequences at the same specific points, of which some are 3-fold symmetry related. Many of these frequent intron positions are also conserved in subfamilies or in groups of subfamilies transporting similar substrates. The analyses of the frequent and conserved intron positions in MCs suggest phylogenetic relationships not only between close but also distant homologs as well as a possible involvement of the intron positions in the evolution of the substrate specificity diversification of the MC family members.

Citrate Regulates the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Mitochondrial GDP/GTP Carrier (Ggc1p) by Triggering Unidirectional Transport of GTP.

The yeast mitochondrial transport of GTP and GDP is mediated by Ggc1p, a member of the mitochondrial carrier family. The physiological role of Ggc1p in S. cerevisiae is probably to transport GTP into mitochondria in exchange for GDP generated in the matrix. ggc1Δ cells exhibit lower levels of GTP and increased levels of GDP in mitochondria, are unable to grow on nonfermentable substrates and lose mtDNA. Because in yeast, succinyl-CoA ligase produces ATP instead of GTP, and the mitochondrial nucleoside diphosphate kinase is localized in the intermembrane space, Ggc1p is the only supplier of mitochondrial GTP required for the maturation of proteins containing Fe-S clusters, such as aconitase [4Fe-4S] and ferredoxin [2Fe-2S]. In this work, it was demonstrated that citrate is a regulator of purified and reconstituted Ggc1p by trans-activating unidirectional transport of GTP across the proteoliposomal membrane. It was also shown that the binding site of Ggc1p for citrate is different from the binding site for the substrate GTP. It is proposed that the citrate-induced GTP uniport (CIGU) mediated by Ggc1p is involved in the homeostasis of the guanine nucleotide pool in the mitochondrial matrix.

Mitochondrial transport and metabolism of the major methyl donor and versatile cofactor S-adenosylmethionine, and related diseases: A review†.

S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) is a coenzyme and the most commonly used methyl-group donor for the modification of metabolites, DNA, RNA and proteins. SAM biosynthesis and SAM regeneration from the methylation reaction product S-adenosyl-L-homocysteine (SAH) take place in the cytoplasm. Therefore, the intramitochondrial SAM-dependent methyltransferases require the import of SAM and export of SAH for recycling. Orthologous mitochondrial transporters belonging to the mitochondrial carrier family have been identified to catalyze this antiport transport step: Sam5p in yeast, SLC25A26 (SAMC) in humans, and SAMC1-2 in plants. In mitochondria SAM is used by a vast number of enzymes implicated in the following processes: the regulation of replication, transcription, translation, and enzymatic activities; the maturation and assembly of mitochondrial tRNAs, ribosomes and protein complexes; and the biosynthesis of cofactors, such as ubiquinone, lipoate, and molybdopterin. Mutations in SLC25A26 and mitochondrial SAM-dependent enzymes have been found to cause human diseases, which emphasizes the physiological importance of these proteins.

Evidence for Non-Essential Salt Bridges in the M-Gates of Mitochondrial Carrier Proteins.

Mitochondrial carriers, which transport metabolites, nucleotides, and cofactors across the mitochondrial inner membrane, have six transmembrane α-helices enclosing a translocation pore with a central substrate binding site whose access is controlled by a cytoplasmic and a matrix gate (M-gate). The salt bridges formed by the three PX[DE]XX[RK] motifs located on the odd-numbered transmembrane α-helices greatly contribute to closing the M-gate. We have measured the transport rates of cysteine mutants of the charged residue positions in the PX[DE]XX[RK] motifs of the bovine oxoglutarate carrier, the yeast GTP/GDP carrier, and the yeast NAD+ transporter, which all lack one of these charged residues. Most single substitutions, including those of the non-charged and unpaired charged residues, completely inactivated transport. Double mutations of charged pairs showed that all three carriers contain salt bridges non-essential for activity. Two double substitutions of these non-essential charge pairs exhibited higher transport rates than their corresponding single mutants, whereas swapping the charged residues in these positions did not increase activity. The results demonstrate that some of the residues in the charged residue positions of the PX[DE]XX[KR] motifs are important for reasons other than forming salt bridges, probably for playing specific roles related to the substrate interaction-mediated conformational changes leading to the M-gate opening/closing.

Mitochondrial transport and metabolism of the vitamin B-derived cofactors thiamine pyrophosphate, coenzyme A, FAD and NAD+ , and related diseases: A review.

Multiple mitochondrial matrix enzymes playing key roles in metabolism require cofactors for their action. Due to the high impermeability of the mitochondrial inner membrane, these cofactors need to be synthesized within the mitochondria or be imported, themselves or one of their precursors, into the organelles. Transporters belonging to the protein family of mitochondrial carriers have been identified to transport the coenzymes: thiamine pyrophosphate, coenzyme A, FAD and NAD+ , which are all structurally similar to nucleotides and derived from different B-vitamins. These mitochondrial cofactors bind more or less tightly to their enzymes and, after having been involved in a specific reaction step, are regenerated, spontaneously or by other enzymes, to return to their active form, ready for the next catalysis round. Disease-causing mutations in the mitochondrial cofactor carrier genes compromise not only the transport reaction but also the activity of all mitochondrial enzymes using that particular cofactor and the metabolic pathways in which the cofactor-dependent enzymes are involved. The mitochondrial transport, metabolism and diseases of the cofactors thiamine pyrophosphate, coenzyme A, FAD and NAD+ are the focus of this review.

Uridine Treatment of the First Known Case of SLC25A36 Deficiency.

SLC25A36 is a pyrimidine nucleotide carrier playing an important role in maintaining mitochondrial biogenesis. Deficiencies in SLC25A36 in mouse embryonic stem cells have been associated with mtDNA depletion as well as mitochondrial dysfunction. In human beings, diseases triggered by SLC25A36 mutations have not been described yet. We report the first known case of SLC25A36 deficiency in a 12-year-old patient with hypothyroidism, hyperinsulinism, hyperammonemia, chronical obstipation, short stature, along with language and general developmental delay. Whole exome analysis identified the homozygous mutation c.803dupT, p.Ser269llefs*35 in the SLC25A36 gene. Functional analysis of mutant SLC25A36 protein in proteoliposomes showed a virtually abolished transport activity. Immunoblotting results suggest that the mutant SLC25A36 protein in the patient undergoes fast degradation. Supplementation with oral uridine led to an improvement of thyroid function and obstipation, increase of growth and developmental progress. Our findings suggest an important role of SLC25A36 in hormonal regulations and oral uridine as a safe and effective treatment.

Welcome to the Family: Identification of the NAD+ Transporter of Animal Mitochondria as Member of the Solute Carrier Family SLC25.

Subcellular compartmentation is a fundamental property of eukaryotic cells. Communication and metabolic and regulatory interconnectivity between organelles require that solutes can be transported across their surrounding membranes. Indeed, in mammals, there are hundreds of genes encoding solute carriers (SLCs) which mediate the selective transport of molecules such as nucleotides, amino acids, and sugars across biological membranes. Research over many years has identified the localization and preferred substrates of a large variety of SLCs. Of particular interest has been the SLC25 family, which includes carriers embedded in the inner membrane of mitochondria to secure the supply of these organelles with major metabolic intermediates and coenzymes. The substrate specificity of many of these carriers has been established in the past. However, the route by which animal mitochondria are supplied with NAD+ had long remained obscure. Only just recently, the existence of a human mitochondrial NAD+ carrier was firmly established. With the realization that SLC25A51 (or MCART1) represents the major mitochondrial NAD+ carrier in mammals, a long-standing mystery in NAD+ biology has been resolved. Here, we summarize the functional importance and structural features of this carrier as well as the key observations leading to its discovery.

The Mitochondrial Carnitine Acyl-carnitine Carrier (SLC25A20): Molecular Mechanisms of Transport, Role in Redox Sensing and Interaction with Drugs.

The SLC25A20 transporter, also known as carnitine acyl-carnitine carrier (CAC), catalyzes the transport of short, medium and long carbon chain acyl-carnitines across the mitochondrial inner membrane in exchange for carnitine. The 30-year story of the protein responsible for this function started with its purification from rat liver mitochondria. Even though its 3D structure is not yet available, CAC is one of the most deeply characterized transport proteins of the inner mitochondrial membrane. Other than functional, kinetic and mechanistic data, post-translational modifications regulating the transport activity of CAC have been revealed. CAC interactions with drugs or xenobiotics relevant to human health and toxicology and the response of the carrier function to dietary compounds have been discovered. Exploiting combined approaches of site-directed mutagenesis with chemical targeting and bioinformatics, a large set of data on structure/function relationships have been obtained, giving novel information on the molecular mechanism of the transport catalyzed by this protein.

Engineering Yarrowia lipolytica for the selective and high-level production of isocitric acid through manipulation of mitochondrial dicarboxylate-tricarboxylate carriers.

During cultivation under nitrogen starvation, Yarrowia lipolytica produces a mixture of citric acid and isocitric acid whose ratio is mainly determined by the carbon source used. We report that mitochondrial succinate-fumarate carrier YlSfc1 controls isocitric acid efflux from mitochondria. YlSfc1 purified and reconstituted into liposomes transports succinate, fumarate, oxaloacetate, isocitrate and α-ketoglutarate. YlSFC1 overexpression determined the inversion of isocitric acid/citric acid ratio towards isocitric acid, resulting in 33.4 ± 1.9 g/L and 43.3 ± 2.8 g/L of ICA production in test-tube cultivation with glucose and glycerol, respectively. These titers represent a 4.0 and 6.3-fold increase compared to the wild type. YlSFC1 gene expression was repressed in the wild type strain grown in glucose-based medium compared to olive oil medium explaining the reason for the preferred citric acid production during Y. lipolytica growth on carbohydrates. Coexpression of YlSFC1 and adenosine monophosphate deaminase YlAMPD genes together with inactivation of citrate mitochondrial carrier YlYHM2 gene enhanced isocitric acid accumulation up to 41.4 ± 4.1 g/L with an isocitric acid/citric acid ratio of 14.3 in a small-scale cultivation with glucose as a carbon source. During large-scale cultivation with glucose pulse-feeding, the engineered strain produced 136.7 ± 2.5 g/L of ICA with a process selectivity of 88.1%, the highest reported titer and selectivity to date. These results represent the first reported isocitric acid secretion by Y. lipolytica as a main organic acid during cultivation on carbohydrate. Moreover, we demonstrate for the first time that the replacement of one mitochondrial transport system for another can be an efficient tool for switching product accumulation.

Diseases Caused by Mutations in Mitochondrial Carrier Genes SLC25: A Review.

In the 1980s, after the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) had been sequenced, several diseases resulting from mtDNA mutations emerged. Later, numerous disorders caused by mutations in the nuclear genes encoding mitochondrial proteins were found. A group of these diseases are due to defects of mitochondrial carriers, a family of proteins named solute carrier family 25 (SLC25), that transport a variety of solutes such as the reagents of ATP synthase (ATP, ADP, and phosphate), tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates, cofactors, amino acids, and carnitine esters of fatty acids. The disease-causing mutations disclosed in mitochondrial carriers range from point mutations, which are often localized in the substrate translocation pore of the carrier, to large deletions and insertions. The biochemical consequences of deficient transport are the compartmentalized accumulation of the substrates and dysfunctional mitochondrial and cellular metabolism, which frequently develop into various forms of myopathy, encephalopathy, or neuropathy. Examples of diseases, due to mitochondrial carrier mutations are: combined D-2- and L-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria, carnitine-acylcarnitine carrier deficiency, hyperornithinemia-hyperammonemia-homocitrillinuria (HHH) syndrome, early infantile epileptic encephalopathy type 3, Amish microcephaly, aspartate/glutamate isoform 1 deficiency, congenital sideroblastic anemia, Fontaine progeroid syndrome, and citrullinemia type II. Here, we review all the mitochondrial carrier-related diseases known until now, focusing on the connections between the molecular basis, altered metabolism, and phenotypes of these inherited disorders.

Biochemical and functional characterization of a mitochondrial citrate carrier in Arabidopsis thaliana.

A homolog of the mitochondrial succinate/fumarate carrier from yeast (Sfc1p) has been found in the Arabidopsis genome, named AtSFC1. The AtSFC1 gene was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the gene product was purified and reconstituted in liposomes. Its transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrated that AtSFC1 transports citrate, isocitrate and aconitate and, to a lesser extent, succinate and fumarate. This carrier catalyzes a fast counter-exchange transport as well as a low uniport of substrates, exhibits a higher transport affinity for tricarboxylates than dicarboxylates, and is inhibited by pyridoxal 5'-phosphate and other inhibitors of mitochondrial carriers to various degrees. Gene expression analysis indicated that the AtSFC1 transcript is mainly present in heterotrophic tissues, and fusion with a green-fluorescent protein localized AtSFC1 to the mitochondria. Furthermore, 35S-AtSFC1 antisense lines were generated and characterized at metabolic and physiological levels in different organs and at various developmental stages. Lower expression of AtSFC1 reduced seed germination and impaired radicle growth, a phenotype that was related to reduced respiration rate. These findings demonstrate that AtSFC1 might be involved in storage oil mobilization at the early stages of seedling growth and in nitrogen assimilation in root tissue by catalyzing citrate/isocitrate or citrate/succinate exchanges.

Downregulation of a Mitochondrial NAD+ Transporter (NDT2) Alters Seed Production and Germination in Arabidopsis.

Despite the fundamental importance of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) for metabolism, the physiological roles of NAD+ carriers in plants remain unclear. We previously characterized the Arabidopsis thaliana gene (At1g25380), named AtNDT2, encoding a protein located in the mitochondrial inner membrane, which imports NAD+ from the cytosol using ADP and AMP as counter-exchange substrates for NAD+. Here, we further investigated the physiological roles of NDT2, by isolating a T-DNA insertion line, generating an antisense line and characterizing these genotypes in detail. Reduced NDT2 expression affected reproductive phase by reducing total seed yield. In addition, reduced seed germination and retardation in seedling establishment were observed in the mutant lines. Moreover, remarkable changes in primary metabolism were observed in dry and germinated seeds and an increase in fatty acid levels was verified during seedling establishment. Furthermore, flowers and seedlings of NDT2 mutants displayed upregulation of de novo and salvage pathway genes encoding NAD+ biosynthesis enzymes, demonstrating the transcriptional control mediated by NDT2 activity over these genes. Taken together, our results suggest that NDT2 expression is fundamental for maintaining NAD+ balance amongst organelles that modulate metabolism, physiology and developmental processes of heterotrophic tissues.

Deficiency of Mitochondrial Aspartate-Glutamate Carrier 1 Leads to Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cell Proliferation Defects Both In Vitro and In Vivo.

Aspartate-Glutamate Carrier 1 (AGC1) deficiency is a rare neurological disease caused by mutations in the solute carrier family 25, member 12 (SLC25A12) gene, encoding for the mitochondrial aspartate-glutamate carrier isoform 1 (AGC1), a component of the malate-aspartate NADH shuttle (MAS), expressed in excitable tissues only. AGC1 deficiency patients are children showing severe hypotonia, arrested psychomotor development, seizures and global hypomyelination. While the effect of AGC1 deficiency in neurons and neuronal function has been deeply studied, little is known about oligodendrocytes and their precursors, the brain cells involved in myelination. Here we studied the effect of AGC1 down-regulation on oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), using both in vitro and in vivo mouse disease models. In the cell model, we showed that a reduced expression of AGC1 induces a deficit of OPC proliferation leading to their spontaneous and precocious differentiation into oligodendrocytes. Interestingly, this effect seems to be related to a dysregulation in the expression of trophic factors and receptors involved in OPC proliferation/differentiation, such as Platelet-Derived Growth Factor α (PDGFα) and Transforming Growth Factor ßs (TGFßs). We also confirmed the OPC reduction in vivo in AGC1-deficent mice, as well as a proliferation deficit in neurospheres from the Subventricular Zone (SVZ) of these animals, thus indicating that AGC1 reduction could affect the proliferation of different brain precursor cells. These data clearly show that AGC1 impairment alters myelination not only by acting on N-acetyl-aspartate production in neurons but also on OPC proliferation and suggest new potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of AGC1 deficiency.

Mitochondrial Carriers for Aspartate, Glutamate and Other Amino Acids: A Review.

Members of the mitochondrial carrier (MC) protein family transport various molecules across the mitochondrial inner membrane to interlink steps of metabolic pathways and biochemical processes that take place in different compartments; i.e., are localized partly inside and outside the mitochondrial matrix. MC substrates consist of metabolites, inorganic anions (such as phosphate and sulfate), nucleotides, cofactors and amino acids. These compounds have been identified by in vitro transport assays based on the uptake of radioactively labeled substrates into liposomes reconstituted with recombinant purified MCs. By using this approach, 18 human, plant and yeast MCs for amino acids have been characterized and shown to transport aspartate, glutamate, ornithine, arginine, lysine, histidine, citrulline and glycine with varying substrate specificities, kinetics, influences of the pH gradient, and capacities for the antiport and uniport mode of transport. Aside from providing amino acids for mitochondrial translation, the transport reactions catalyzed by these MCs are crucial in energy, nitrogen, nucleotide and amino acid metabolism. In this review we dissect the transport properties, phylogeny, regulation and expression levels in different tissues of MCs for amino acids, and summarize the main structural aspects known until now about MCs. The effects of their disease-causing mutations and manipulation of their expression levels in cells are also considered as clues for understanding their physiological functions.

The mitochondrial NAD+ transporter (NDT1) plays important roles in cellular NAD+ homeostasis in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ ) is an essential coenzyme required for all living organisms. In eukaryotic cells, the final step of NAD+ biosynthesis is exclusively cytosolic. Hence, NAD+ must be imported into organelles to support their metabolic functions. Three NAD+ transporters belonging to the mitochondrial carrier family (MCF) have been biochemically characterized in plants. AtNDT1 (At2g47490), focus of the current study, AtNDT2 (At1g25380), targeted to the inner mitochondrial membrane, and AtPXN (At2g39970), located in the peroxisomal membrane. Although AtNDT1 was presumed to reside in the chloroplast membrane, subcellular localization experiments with green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions revealed that AtNDT1 locates exclusively in the mitochondrial membrane in stably transformed Arabidopsis plants. To understand the biological function of AtNDT1 in Arabidopsis, three transgenic lines containing an antisense construct of AtNDT1 under the control of the 35S promoter alongside a T-DNA insertional line were evaluated. Plants with reduced AtNDT1 expression displayed lower pollen viability, silique length, and higher rate of seed abortion. Furthermore, these plants also exhibited an increased leaf number and leaf area concomitant with higher photosynthetic rates and higher levels of sucrose and starch. Therefore, lower expression of AtNDT1 was associated with enhanced vegetative growth but severe impairment of the reproductive stage. These results are discussed in the context of the mitochondrial localization of AtNDT1 and its important role in the cellular NAD+ homeostasis for both metabolic and developmental processes in plants.

The human uncoupling proteins 5 and 6 (UCP5/SLC25A14 and UCP6/SLC25A30) transport sulfur oxyanions, phosphate and dicarboxylates.

The human genome encodes 53 members of the solute carrier family 25 (SLC25), also called the mitochondrial carrier family. In this work, two members of this family, UCP5 (BMCP1, brain mitochondrial carrier protein 1 encoded by SLC25A14) and UCP6 (KMCP1, kidney mitochondrial carrier protein 1 encoded by SLC25A30) have been thoroughly characterized biochemically. They were overexpressed in bacteria, purified and reconstituted in phospholipid vesicles. Their transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that UCP5 and UCP6 transport inorganic anions (sulfate, sulfite, thiosulfate and phosphate) and, to a lesser extent, a variety of dicarboxylates (e.g. malonate, malate and citramalate) and, even more so, aspartate and (only UCP5) glutamate and tricarboxylates. Both carriers catalyzed a fast counter-exchange transport and a very low uniport of substrates. Transport was saturable and inhibited by mercurials and other mitochondrial carrier inhibitors at various degrees. The transport affinities of UCP5 and UCP6 were higher for sulfate and thiosulfate than for any other substrate, whereas the specific activity of UCP5 was much higher than that of UCP6. It is proposed that a main physiological role of UCP5 and UCP6 is to catalyze the export of sulfite and thiosulfate (the H2S degradation products) from the mitochondria, thereby modulating the level of the important signal molecule H2S.

The mitochondrial citrate carrier in Yarrowia lipolytica: Its identification, characterization and functional significance for the production of citric acid.

Mitochondrial citrate carrier plays a central role in exporting acetyl-CoA in the form of citrate from mitochondria to cytosol thereby connecting carbohydrate catabolism and lipogenesis. In this study, Yarrowia lipolytica mitochondrial citrate carrier was functionally defined and characterized. Firstly, deletion of Y. lipolytica YlCTP1 and YlYHM2 genes coding putative tricarboxylate mitochondrial carriers were performed. ΔYlctp1 strain did not differ significantly from wild type strain in terms of growth rate, organic acids and lipid production. In contrast, ΔYlyhm2 strain did not grow in liquid citrate-containing minimal medium. Moreover, in glucose-containing lipogenic medium YlYHM2 null mutant strain did not produce citric acid; the production of isocitric acid and lipids were decreased. Reintroduction of YlYHM2 gene as well as heterologous expression of Aspergillus niger gene AnYHM2 into ΔYlyhm2 strain restored the growth in minimal citrate medium and even enhanced citric acid production by 45% in both variants compared with wild type strain during test tube cultivation. Mitochondrial extracts isolated from YlYHM2 null mutant and wild type strain were incorporated into liposomes; citrate/citrate and α-ketoglutarate/α-ketoglutarate homoexchange activities were reduced by 87% and 40% in ΔYlyhm2 strain, respectively, compared with the wild type, whereas citratein/α-ketoglutarateout and α-ketoglutaratein/citrateout heteroexchanges were decreased by 87% and 95%, respectively. YlYhm2p was expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and reconstituted into liposomes. Besides high efficiency to citrate and α-ketoglutarate transport, YlYhm2p also transported oxaloacetate, succinate, fumarate, and to a much lesser extent, aconitate, malate, isocitrate, oxoadipate, and glutamate. The activity of reconstituted YlYhm2p was inhibited strongly by SH-blocking reagents, pyridoxal-5'-phosphate, and partly by N-ethylmaleimide. Co-expression of YlYHM2 and adenosine monophosphate deaminase YlAMPD genes resulted in the production of 49.7 g/L of citric acid during test tube cultivation, whereas wild type strain accumulated 30.1 g/L of citric acid. Large-scale cultivation in bioreactor of the engineered strain resulted in 97.1 g/L of citric acid production with a process selectivity of 94.2% and an overall citric acid yield of 0.5 g/g. The maximal specific rate of citric acid synthesis was 0.93 g/L/h. Therefore, the physiological role of YlYhm2p in glucose-containing medium is to catalyze both import of citrate into mitochondria for catabolic reactions and export of citrate as a source of acetyl-CoA from mitochondria. Possible shuttles for citrate exporting are discussed. Moreover, for the first time evidence has been given for the improvement of TCA cycle intermediate production by manipulation of a gene coding a mitochondrial carrier.

Transcriptional Regulation Factors of the Human Mitochondrial Aspartate/Glutamate Carrier Gene, Isoform 2 (SLC25A13): USF1 as Basal Factor and FOXA2 as Activator in Liver Cells.

Mitochondrial carriers catalyse the translocation of numerous metabolites across the inner mitochondrial membrane, playing a key role in different cell functions. For this reason, mitochondrial carrier gene expression needs tight regulation. The human SLC25A13 gene, encoding for the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier isoform 2 (AGC2), catalyses the electrogenic exchange of aspartate for glutamate plus a proton, thus taking part in many metabolic processes including the malate-aspartate shuttle. By the luciferase (LUC) activity of promoter deletion constructs we identified the putative promoter region, comprising the proximal promoter (-442 bp/-19 bp), as well as an enhancer region (-968 bp/-768 bp). Furthermore, with different approaches, such as in silico promoter analysis, gene silencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation, we identified two transcription factors responsible for SLC25A13 transcriptional regulation: FOXA2 and USF1. USF1 acts as a positive transcription factor which binds to the basal promoter thus ensuring SLC25A13 gene expression in a wide range of tissues. The role of FOXA2 is different, working as an activator in hepatic cells. As a tumour suppressor, FOXA2 could be responsible for SLC25A13 high expression levels in liver and its downregulation in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Epigenetic upregulation and functional role of the mitochondrial aspartate/glutamate carrier isoform 1 in hepatocellular carcinoma.

Metabolic reprogramming is a common hallmark of cancer cells. Although some biochemical features have been clarified, there is still much to learn about cancer cell metabolism and its regulation. Aspartate-glutamate carrier isoform 1 (AGC1), encoded by SLC25A12 gene, catalyzes an exchange between intramitochondrial aspartate and cytosolic glutamate plus a proton across the mitochondrial membrane, so supplying aspartate to the cytosol. SLC25A12, expressed in brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, is silenced in normal liver. Here, we demonstrate that SLC25A12 gene is reactivated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) HepG2 cell line through histone acetylation and CREB recruitment. Furthermore, SLC25A12 knockdown by small interfering RNA, impairs HepG2 cell proliferation by inducing cell cycle arrest. AGC1 sustains HCC cell growth by supplying cytosolic aspartate for nucleotide biosynthesis. In addition, SLC25A12-silenced HCC cells show a strong reduction of cell migration. Overall, we have provided evidence for molecular mechanisms controlling SLC25A12 gene expression in liver and pointing to an important role for AGC1 in HCC.

Molecular identification and functional characterization of a novel glutamate transporter in yeast and plant mitochondria.

The genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes 35 members of the mitochondrial carrier family (MCF) and 58 MCF members are coded by the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, most of which have been functionally characterized. Here two members of this family, Ymc2p from S. cerevisiae and BOU from Arabidopsis, have been thoroughly characterized. These proteins were overproduced in bacteria and reconstituted into liposomes. Their transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that Ymc2p and BOU transport glutamate, and to a much lesser extent L-homocysteinesulfinate, but not other amino acids and many other tested metabolites. Transport catalyzed by both carriers was saturable, inhibited by mercuric chloride and dependent on the proton gradient across the proteoliposomal membrane. The growth phenotype of S. cerevisiae cells lacking the genes ymc2 and agc1, which encodes the only other S. cerevisiae carrier capable to transport glutamate besides aspartate, was fully complemented by expressing Ymc2p, Agc1p or BOU. Mitochondrial extracts derived from ymc2Δagc1Δ cells, reconstituted into liposomes, exhibited no glutamate transport at variance with wild-type, ymc2Δ and agc1Δ cells, showing that S. cerevisiae cells grown in the presence of acetate do not contain additional mitochondrial transporters for glutamate besides Ymc2p and Agc1p. Furthermore, mitochondria isolated from wild-type, ymc2Δ and agc1Δ strains, but not from the double mutant ymc2Δagc1Δ strain, swell in isosmotic ammonium glutamate showing that glutamate is transported by Ymc2p and Agc1p together with a H+. It is proposed that the function of Ymc2p and BOU is to transport glutamate across the mitochondrial inner membrane and thereby play a role in intermediary metabolism, C1 metabolism and mitochondrial protein synthesis.