Trans-oceanic genomic divergence of Atlantic cod ecotypes is associated with large inversions.

Chromosomal rearrangements such as inversions can play a crucial role in maintaining polymorphism underlying complex traits and contribute to the process of speciation. In Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua), inversions of several megabases have been identified that dominate genomic differentiation between migratory and nonmigratory ecotypes in the Northeast Atlantic. Here, we show that the same genomic regions display elevated divergence and contribute to ecotype divergence in the Northwest Atlantic as well. The occurrence of these inversions on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean reveals a common evolutionary origin, predating the >100 000-year-old trans-Atlantic separation of Atlantic cod. The long-term persistence of these inversions indicates that they are maintained by selection, possibly facilitated by coevolution of genes underlying complex traits. Our data suggest that migratory behaviour is derived from more stationary, ancestral ecotypes. Overall, we identify several large genomic regions-each containing hundreds of genes-likely involved in the maintenance of genomic divergence in Atlantic cod on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.

Analysing migrations of Atlantic cod Gadus morhua in the north-east Atlantic Ocean: then, now and the future.

The application of data storage tags bears the potential for a quantum leap in the research on fish migrations, because not only first-capture and recapture positions are known, but at least theoretically, the migration path during the period at large can be reconstructed. Position, however, cannot be measured directly but has to be estimated using the available data on light, temperature, pressure and salinity. The reconstructed locations based on advanced estimation techniques have been termed geolocations. Examples are discussed which illustrate the applicability of geolocations in individual path descriptions, separation of reproductively isolated populations, timing and areas of spawning, tidal transport and use of protected areas. The examples are based on archival tag data from the North Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Barents Sea and Faroese and Icelandic Waters. Besides presenting the state-of-the-art geolocations for cod Gadus morhua in the north-east Atlantic Ocean, the major aim of this review is to raise awareness of gaps in knowledge and to identify ideas for new research.

Fourteen new microsatellite markers for Atlantic herring Clupea harengus.

Fourteen new microsatellite loci were developed and tested on Atlantic herring Clupea harengus with 39 individuals from Iceland and 49 individuals from Norway. The microsatellites, which contain di, tri and tetranucleotide repeats, are polymorphic (7-30 alleles), with observed heterozygosity ranging between 0·69 and 1·00 and expected heterozygosity between 0·55 and 0·97.

Permanent Genetic Resources added to the Molecular Ecology Resources Database 1 February 2010-31 March 2010.

This article documents the addition of 228 microsatellite marker loci to the Molecular Ecology Resources Database. Loci were developed for the following species: Anser cygnoides, Apodemus flavicollis, Athene noctua, Cercis canadensis, Glis glis, Gubernatrix cristata, Haliotis tuberculata, Helianthus maximiliani, Laricobius nigrinus, Laricobius rubidus, Neoheligmonella granjoni, Nephrops norvegicus, Oenanthe javanica, Paramuricea clavata, Pyrrhura orcesi and Samanea saman. These loci were cross-tested on the following species: Apodemus sylvaticus, Laricobius laticollis and Laricobius osakensis (a proposed new species currently being described).

Pleistocene genetic legacy suggests incipient species of Sebastes mentella in the Irminger Sea.

To investigate a possible speciation event within the redfish (Sebastes mentella) complex in the Irminger Sea, we examined genetics, traditional morphology, geometric morphometrics and meristics of individuals sampled throughout the Sea. Tissue samples from 1901 fish were collected in 1995 and 1996 and from 1999 to 2002, and the fish were genotyped at nine microsatellite loci, two of which were developed for this study. Individual-based genetic analyses showed that two different gene pools exist in the Irminger Sea. Although these groups overlap extensively geographically, they segregate according to depth: those above and below 550 m. This signal of genotype distinction with depth was evident in both the earlier and later sampling. Historical imprints in the genetic data indicated that the redfish in the Irminger Sea are likely to represent a case of an incipient speciation event that began in allopatry during the Pleistocene glaciations followed by secondary contact. Although hybridization was observed between groups, an analysis of traditional and geometric morphometrics and of meristic variables suggested that restricted gene flow between the currently parapatric deep- and shallow-mesopelagic incipient species may be maintained by ecological isolation mechanisms.

First report of Gyrodactylus spp. (Platyhelminthes: Monogenea) in the western Mediterranean Sea: molecular and morphological descriptions.

The Gyrodactylus spp. fauna on species of gobies, Pomatoschistus, Gobiusculus, and Knipowitschia (Gobiidae: Teleostei), from the western Mediterranean and Adriatic seas is strikingly similar to that found in the Baltic Sea and eastern Atlantic Ocean, both in morphology and in internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rRNA. The fauna consisted of Gyrodactylus branchialis, G. ostendicus, G. gondae, G. rugiensis, G. rugiensoides, and G. arcuatus. No new species have been found. A morphometric comparison between G. branchialis from the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas and its type locality in Ostend (Belgium) showed significant differences in ventral bar and marginal hook features. The morphometric variation was lower in G. rugiensis, whereas no significant differences were found in G. ostendicus. Gyrodactylus branchialis and G. ostendicus collected on P. microps were slightly different in the ITS rDNA (-0.6%) compared with specimens on the closely related P. marmoratus, probably reflecting ongoing speciation. A hybrid zone was identified in the Vaccarès lagoon complex (France) where both host species are sympatric. There was no clear geographic or host-related pattern in the variation found in the ITS2 rDNA in G. arcuatus sampled from P. microps, G. flavescens, Pungitius pungitius, K. panizzae, and its original host Gasterosteus aculeatus (2 polymorphic sites). Of all studied species, only G. arcuatus, G. rugiensis, and G. rugiensoides showed minor intraspecific variation in the ITS rDNA. Hence, the physical separation by a shoreline of more than 10,000 km is hardly reflected in the parasite ITS rDNA.

The catadromous European eel Anguilla anguilla (L.) as a model for freshwater evolutionary ecotoxicology: relationship between heavy metal bioaccumulation, condition and genetic variability.

Understanding the effects of pollutants on the genome is of crucial importance to preserve the evolutionary potential of endangered natural populations. The highly vagile European eel (Anguilla anguilla L.) has suffered a dramatic decline in recruitment since two decades, urging for a better understanding of the genetic impact of pollution. Its catadromous life history constitutes a model to assess local selection of pollutants on condition and genetic variability, as juveniles recruit in European rivers without appreciable pollution load or interfering genetic background. Because of its high fat content and local benthic feeding behaviour, the feeding stage is considered extremely prone to the bioaccumulation of pollutants. We studied the relationship between heavy metal bioaccumulation, fitness (condition) and genetic variability in the European eel. The muscle tissues of 78 sub-adult eels, originating from three Belgian river basins (Scheldt, Meuse and Yser), were examined for nine heavy metal pollutants (Hg, Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Ni, Cr, As and Se), while in total 123 individuals were genotyped at 12 allozyme and 8 microsatellite loci. A significant negative correlation between heavy metal pollution load and condition was observed, suggesting an impact of pollution on the health of sub-adult eels. In general, we observed a reduced genetic variability in strongly polluted eels, as well as a negative correlation between level of bioaccumulation and allozymatic multi-locus heterozygosity (MLH). Microsatellite genetic variability did not show any pollution related differences, suggesting a differential response at metabolic enzymes and possibly direct overdominance of heterozygous individuals.

Evidence for fine-scale genetic structure and estuarine colonisation in a potential high gene flow marine goby (Pomatoschistus minutus).

Marine fish seem to experience evolutionary processes that are expected to produce genetically homogeneous populations. We have assessed genetic diversity and differentiation in 15 samples of the sand goby Pomatoschistus minutus (Pallas, 1770) (Gobiidae, Teleostei) from four major habitats within the Southern Bight of the North Sea, using seven microsatellite and 13 allozyme loci. Despite its high dispersal potential, microsatellite loci revealed a moderate level of differentiation (overall F(ST)=0.026; overall R(ST)=0.058). Both hierarchical analysis of molecular variance and multivariate analysis revealed significant differentiation (P<0.01) between estuarine, coastal and marine samples with microsatellites, but not with allozymes. Comparison among the different estimators of differentiation (F(ST) and R(ST)) pointed to possible historical events and contemporary habitat fragmentation. Samples were assigned to two breeding units in the estuary and coastal region. Despite this classification, there were indications of a complex and dynamic spatiotemporal structure, which is, most likely, determined by historical events and local oceanic currents.

Phylogeography of the common goby, Pomatoschistus microps, with particular emphasis on the colonization of the Mediterranean and the North Sea.

The phylogeographical patterns of a small marine fish, the common goby, Pomatoschistus microps, were assessed at 12 sites along the northeastern Atlantic coasts and the western Mediterranean Sea. A combination of two genetic markers was employed: cellulose acetate allozyme electrophoresis (CAGE) and sequence analysis of a 289 bp fragment of the mitochondrial locus cytochrome b. Both markers were congruent in revealing significant differences between samples (global FST = 0.247 for the allozymes and PhiST = 0.437 for the mitochondrial DNA data) and a pattern of isolation-by-distance. Phylogeographical analyses yielded a shallow branching structure with four groups. Three of those were confined to the Atlantic basin and showed a star-like pattern. The fourth group contained a central haplotype occurring at the edges of the species' distribution, accompanied by a few more rare variants, which were restricted to the Mediterranean Sea. A genetic break was observed around the British Isles, with distinct haplotypes dominating at either side of the English Channel. A significantly negative correlation between the degree of genetic diversity and latitude was recorded both for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and allozymes in the Atlantic basin. Gene flow analysis suggested that recolonization of the North Sea and the coasts of western Scotland and Ireland may have taken place from a glacial refugium in the Southern Bight of the North Sea. These results are discussed in the perspective of possible postglacial migration routes of marine fish along the northeastern Atlantic coasts.

Infection patterns of Myxobolus heterospora in two tilapia species (Teleostei: Cichlidae) and its potential effects.

A Myxobolus heterospora (Baker, 1963) infection was found in 2 euryhaline tilapia species, Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron (Rüppel, 1853) and Tilapia zillii (Gervais, 1852), from a brackish water lake, Lake Nokoué (Benin, West Africa). The histology and ultrastructure of different levels of infection in intestinal connective tissues and wall tissues is described. A total of 391 S. melanotheron melanotheron and 222 T. zillii were examined from October 1987 to October 1989. M. heterospora was found throughout the study period, with a total prevalence of 42.19 and 26.57% for S. melanotheron melanotheron and T. zillii respectively. There was a statistically significant difference in occurrence as a function of season in S. melanotheron melanotheron but not in T. zilli, and there was a significant difference for size and sex in the former and for sex in the latter. M. heterospora induces total destruction of the intestine structure and probably leads to osmoregulatory disturbance. Further investigations of this myxosporean infection are necessary to determine its real effect on the host, since host survival and osmoregulatory rate have not yet been assessed.

Nonrandom association patterns in parasite infections caused by the host life cycle: empirical evidence from Kudoa camarguensis (Myxosporea) and Aphalloides coelomicola (Trematoda).

Pomatoschistus microps is 1 of the most common fish species inhabiting Mediterranean coastal lagoons. This small species uses an early maturation and a short life span to occupy sites subject to high variability in environmental factors. During monthly investigations on a P. microps population of the Vaccarès Lagoon from March 1993 to December 1997, 2 conspicuous parasites were noticed. The digenean Aphalloides coelomicola was harbored in the abdominal cavity of the fish, whereas the myxosporean Kudoa camarguensis was found in the muscle tissues. Monthly peaks of prevalence occurred at the same period for both parasites, and a positive correlation (permutation test and Janson and Vegelius correlation) was observed between their occurrences among sampled fish. These results suggest that this positive association is related to a third common factor, i.e., their host's life cycle.

Dynamics of Kudoa camarguensis (myxosporean) infection in two gobiid species, Pomatoschistus microps and P. minutus (Teleostei: Pisces), in the Rhjne River delta, France.

The occurrence of the myxosporean parasite Kudoa camarguensis was surveyed monthly during 1997 in a brackish-water lagoon of the Rhjne River delta (France). K. camarguensis was found on its typical host, Pomatoschistus microps, and on an additional host, P. minutus. Prevalence and mean abundance were higher in the typical host than in the additional host due to differences in the temporal occupancy of the lagoon by the 2 species. The temporal occurrence of this myxosporean parasite is discussed in relation to the migratory habits of P. minutus and the sedentary habits of P. microps.

Long-term monitoring on the occurrence of a myxosporean parasite Kudoa camarguensis (Myxosporean) on the common goby (Teleostei, pisces) Pomatoschistus microps.

The evolution of a host-parasite system composed of Pomatoschistus microps-Kudoa camarguensis was investigated in the Vaccarès lagoon (Rhjne river Delta, France) from 1993 to 1997. During this long-term monitoring, centennial flooding of the Rhjne river occurred, leading to an inrush of about 110 million m3 of freshwater in the Vaccarès lagoon. The salinity drastically dropped from 14 to 5 g l(-1) in 1 wk. We observed that the annual prevalence and abundance of the myxosporean parasite decreased from 12.18 in 1993 to 3.7% in 1997 and from 1.10 in 1993 to 0.27 in 1997, respectively. Here, we discuss the possible reasons for the rapid decline of this host-parasite system following the flood.

Occurrence of myxosporean parasites in the gills of two tilapia species from Lake Nokoué (Bénin, West Africa): effect of host size and sex, and seasonal patterns of infection.

The gill myxosporean parasites of 2 euryhaline tilapias from Lake Nokoué, Sarotherodon melanotheron melanotheron (Rüppel, 1853) and Tilapia zillii (Gervais, 1852), were investigated from October 1987 to October 1989. A total of 391 S. m. melanotheron and 222 T. zillii were examined. Both of the fish species studied were infected by 3 host-specific myxosporean parasites for which prevalence greatly varied during our investigations. The 2 most common ones were Myxobolus sp. and M. zillii, which were located in the branchial filament. No significant fish sex effect was found for these 6 different myxosporean parasites. As seasonal pattern was clearly demonstrated for M. zillii while a host size effect was found for M. dossoui. However, further investigations of these myxosporean infections are necessary to determine the real effect of these parasites on their host, as host fecundity and survival was not assessed.

Host death: a necessary condition for the transmission of Aphalloides coelomicola Dollfus, Chabaud, and Golvan, 1957 (Digenea, Cryptogonimidae)?

Eggs of the trematode Aphalloides coelomicola were observed free in the abdominal cavity of Pomatoschistus microps from March 1993 to October 1995 (Pisces, Gobiidae) in the Vaccares lagoon (delta du Rhone, France). The eggs were contained in a fine membrane of parasitic origin as no immunological reaction of the fish was noted. The alternatively high prevalence of adults and low prevalence of free eggs, and vice versa, suggest that P. microps is both the second intermediate and final hosts of the trematode Aphalloides coelomicola and that the mechanism of transfer to the first intermediate host is through death of the definitive host.

Influence of the trematode Aphalloïdes caelomicola Dollfus, Chabaud & Golvan, 1957 on the fecundity and survival of Pomatoschistus microps (Krøyer, 1838) (Teleostei: Gobiidae).

Monthly data collected during 1993 in the Vaccarès lagoon (Rhône Delta, France) were used to investigate the influence of the trematode Aphalloïdes coelomicola on the survival of the common goby Pomatoschistus microps, which acts both as second intermediate and definitive host. Prevalence of the parasite did not increase with fish size in either sex. Mean abundance and variance to mean abundance ratio gave evidence that the trematode could have an impact on host mortality. Gonad weight of parasitized females was reduced and the parasite seemed to provoke a gonadal regression above a certain parasitic biomass. Fecundity and egg diameters did not differ between parasitized and unparasitized females, we thus hypothesize that the energy content of eggs (composition in lipids and proteins) was probably modified as an adaptation to energy losses. Prevalence of infection in males compared to females and influence of the parasite on host survival and reproductive effort are discussed.