Depicting corrosion-born defects in pipelines with combined neutron/γ ray backscatter: a biomimetic approach.

The identification of corrosion, cracks and defects in pipelines used for transporting oil and gas can reduce the possibility of leaks, and consequently, it can limit the extent of an environmental disaster, public hazard and the associated financial impact of such events. Typically, corrosion in oil pipelines is measured with non-destructive ultrasonic or electromagnetic techniques, on the basis that corrosion and defects are often manifest as a change of thickness in the steel from which pipelines are made. However, such approaches are not practical for underground pipelines and their deployment can be complicated for the case of pipelines covered by insulation. In this paper, we present an innovative, non-destructive testing technique, which exploits the backscatter of a combination of fast-neutron and γ radiation from steel samples of a variety of thicknesses consistent with changes that might arise due to corrosion of a pipe wall. Our research demonstrates the potential to measure and characterise different steel thicknesses by detecting both the elastic, fast-neutron backscatter and the Compton-scattered γ radiations, simultaneously. Further, we demonstrate that the presence of insulation yields a consistent and separable influence on the experimental, wall-thickness measurements. The data from experimental measurements are supported by a comprehensive Monte Carlo computer simulation study.

Passive, non-intrusive assay of depleted uranium.

The ability to detect neutrons from the spontaneous fission of 238U in samples of depleted uranium with organic liquid scintillation detectors is presented. In this paper we introduce a small modular organic liquid scintillator detector array that can detect changes in mass of 238U between 3.69 g and 14.46 g. To do this, 18-h assays of various masses of 0.3% wt. of depleted uranium dioxide were assessed using four EJ-309 detectors, a mixed field analyser operated in pulse gradient analysis mode, and associated counting components. We observe a background-corrected fast neutron count sensitivity of (2.0 ±â€¯0.3) × 10-4 n g-1 s-1 per detector. This research demonstrates a proof of concept for depleted uranium quantity to be assessed passively on a non-intrusive basis via its spontaneous fission decay.

Parental sex effect of parthenogenesis on progeny production and performance of Chinese Painted Quail (Coturnix chinensis).

Embryonic development of an unfertilized egg, parthenogenesis, is known to occur in Chinese Painted quail. However, selection for parthenogenesis in both the dam and sire leads to a reduction in hatchability following mating. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if selection for parthenogenesis in the dam, sire, or both also impact their progeny performance. There were 2 lines of birds used in this trial: 1 line selected for parthenogenesis and 1 line not selected for parthenogenesis (control) yielding breeding pairs as follows: control dams + control sires (CC), control dams + parthenogenetic sires (CP), parthenogenetic dams + control sires (PC), and parthenogenetic dams + parthenogenetic sires (PP). For all progeny, a dam line main effect revealed that the parthenogenetic line dams had heavier offspring hatch weight and 4 wk body weight as well as higher 1st wk chick mortality versus control line dams. However, control line dams had the highest 4th wk chick mortality versus parthenogenetic line dams. In female virgin progeny, a dam by sire interaction revealed that PP, PC, and CP had the heaviest 1st egg in the clutch position versus CC. Also, eggs from PP had the highest number of eggs and the most female progeny exhibiting parthenogenesis versus CC. There was a linear increase in egg weight as clutch position increased for progeny from PP and CC yet a linear decline for CP. In conclusion, it appears that both the dam and sire selected for parthenogenesis impact progeny performance as parthenogenetic dams and sires additively contribute to the degree of parthenogenesis exhibited by virgin female progeny. Moreover, because parthenogenesis is known to exist in the modern poultry industry, even the accidental selection of the parthenogenetic trait in either males or females could have a negative impact on overall chick production and performance.

Parental sex effect of parthenogenesis on hatchability and sperm-egg penetration in mated Chinese Painted quail (Coturnix chinensis).

Selecting quail for an increased incidence of parthenogenesis also impacts egg weight and albumen pH as well as reduces hatchability and fertility due to decreased sperm-egg penetration (SEP). However, it is unknown which parental sex is responsible for these changes in quail selected for parthenogenesis. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine which sex influences egg weight, albumen pH, hatchability, and SEP in birds selected for parthenogenesis. In this study, 2 lines of birds were used: 1 line that was selected for parthenogenesis and 1 line not selected for parthenogenesis (control). Treatments were as follows: control females w/control males, control females w/parthenogenetic line males, parthenogenetic line females w/control males, and parthenogenetic line females w/parthenogenetic line males. Fresh eggs were collected daily, labeled and analyzed for albumen pH and SEP or incubated at 37.5 °C for 20 d of incubation. Eggs were candled at 10 days of incubation (DOI) and eggs exhibiting little or no embryonic development were removed and broken open to determine hatching failure. This was repeated at 20 DOI for eggs that did not hatch. A dam main effect for egg set weight existed with parthenogenetic line dams exhibiting heavier eggs than control dams. The parthenogenetic line dams and sires exhibited lower albumen pH and hatch but a higher incidence of parthenogenesis than control line dams or sires. However, only a sire main effect existed for fertility and SEP. Sires from the parthenogenetic line yielded the highest infertility due to lower SEP. In conclusion, both the parthenogenetic line dams and sires contribute to reduced reproductive performance. However, it appears that the sire from the parthenogenetic line is responsible for lower fertility due to a reduction in SEP. Because the sire has a negative impact on overall fertility, it is possible that males selected for parthenogenesis have poorer semen quality resulting in fewer sperm traversing the oviduct or penetrating the perivitelline layer.

Parthenogenesis in mated Chinese Painted quail (Coturnix chinensis) hens decreases sperm-egg penetration and alters albumen characteristics.

Parthenogenesis, embryonic development without fertilization, resembles very early embryonic mortality in fertilized eggs. Also, parthenogenesis alters egg albumen characteristics in virgin Chinese Painted quail hens genetically selected for parthenogenesis (PV). When these PV hens are mated (PM), hatchability is reduced versus control mated (CM) hens that were not genetically selected for parthenogenesis. However, it is unclear if parthenogenesis, which occurs in PM hens, reduces hatchability due to infertility and altered albumen characteristics. Sperm-egg penetration (SEP) holes are indicative of true fertilization and may be useful in identifying if eggs from PM hens exhibit a decrease in fertility versus CM hens. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine if parthenogenesis in PM hens (1) decreases SEP, (2) alters albumen characteristics similar to parthenogenesis in eggs from PV hens, and (3) yields albumen characteristics similar to fertilized eggs containing early mortality. Daily, PV and PM eggs were collected, labeled, and incubated for 10 days, then broken out to determine the incidence of parthenogenesis and albumen characteristics. Also daily, fresh PM and CM quail eggs were macroscopically examined to determine if an egg was infertile with no embryonic development, parthenogenetic, or fertile. Each of these eggs was then microscopically examined for SEP. For both PV and PM incubated eggs, parthenogenesis decreased albumen pH, O2, and protein concentrations yet increased Ca(2+) and CO2 concentrations versus eggs with no development. For incubated PM eggs, albumen pH and O2 were lower, yet CO2 was higher for eggs containing parthenogens or early dead embryos versus infertile eggs. For SEP, fresh eggs classified as infertile or parthenogenetic from PM and CM hens had similar SEP holes but only one sixth as many SEP holes as eggs classified as fertilized. Eggs from CM hens had 3.5 times as many SEP holes as PM eggs. In conclusion, parthenogenesis that occurs in mated quail hens inhibits fertility and alters albumen characteristics similarly to parthenogenesis in unfertilized eggs and early embryonic mortality in fertilized eggs.

Impact of oral Lactobacillus acidophilus gavage on rooster seminal and cloacal Lactobacilli concentrations.

The use of antibiotics in poultry is being heavily scrutinized, therefore alternatives such as probiotics are being investigated. Lactobacilli spp. are a commonly used bacteria in formulating probiotics, and the addition of Lactobacilli to broiler diets has demonstrated increased growth rates, stimulated immune systems, and reduced pathogen loads in the gastro-intestinal tract ( GI: ) tract. However, previous research has shown that when rooster semen is directly exposed to Lactobacillus acidophilus (L. acidophilus) sperm quality is reduced. Therefore, the objective of the current study was to determine if oral administration of L. acidophilus increases the concentration of Lactobacilli in semen as well as the cloaca. A total of 30 roosters were used: 15 roosters were gavaged with 1X PBS (Control) and 15 roosters were gavaged with 10(7) cfu/mL of L. acidophilus (Treated). All roosters were gavaged for 14 consecutive days. Semen was collected on a 3 d interval, and cloacal swabs were collected on a 2 d interval, beginning on the first day prior to oral administration. Semen and cloacal swabs were serial diluted, and 100 µL of each dilution was then plated on Man, Rogosa, Sharpe ( MRS: ) agar plates. All plates were incubated for 48 h at 37°C under anaerobic conditions and counted. All Lactobacilli counts were first log transformed, then log transformed (day 0) pre-counts were subtracted from the log transformed day counts providing log differences for the analysis. Seminal Lactobacilli counts were not altered by treatments. However, the main effect of treatment (P = 0.026) for cloacal counts indicated that roosters gavaged with Lactobacilli yielded higher counts than the controls. Additionally, cloaca samples also demonstrated a treatment by day interaction trend (P = 0.082), where Lactobacilli was higher in the L. acidophilus gavaged roosters than the controls only on days 3, 5, 13, and 15. In conclusion, the addition of L. acidophilus to the male breeder diet over extended periods may increase concentrations of Lactobacilli in the cloaca even higher than the concentrations observed in this study. If Lactobacilli reaches high enough concentrations in the cloaca, then sperm quality may be impacted which could lead to poor fertility within the breeder flock.

Influence of 6 different intestinal bacteria on Beltsville Small White turkey semen.

The turkey industry relies totally on artificial insemination to continue and improve production. If something compromises the insemination process, such as contaminated semen, it becomes a detrimental loss to the industry. Bacteria have been found in broiler breeder males to reduce sperm motility. The Sperm Quality Index (SQI) is a quick method to determine avian sperm motility using the sperm quality analyzer (SQA). Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if bacteria have an effect on turkey sperm motility using the SQA. For the experiment, one mL of pooled neat semen was collected from Beltsville Small White Turkey toms. Six intestinal bacteria, Bifidobacterium animalis, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium bifermentans, Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Salmonella enterica were grown overnight. For each bacterium, 4 treatments were made that consisted of exposing pooled semen to either saline, sterile broth, an overnight culture of each individual bacterium, or a centrifuged pellet of each bacterium re-suspended in saline. The experiment was repeated 3 times. Once the semen was exposed to the respective treatment, a portion was pulled into a capillary tube and placed into the SQA to obtain the SQI. Each treatment was evaluated at zero, 10, and 20 min creating a completely randomized design with a split plot over time. A pH reading also was taken at each time point. The results indicated that all broths containing bacteria immediately reduced turkey sperm motility. Sperm became practically immotile in overnight cultures of Clostridium, Bifidobacterium, or Lactobacillus However, there was a time by treatment interaction in the SQI for Campylobacter, Clostridium, E. coli, Salmonella, and Lactobacillus The pH of semen decreased upon exposure to Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus No difference in pH was found when semen was exposed to E. coli, Campylobacter, Salmonella, or Clostridium treatments. In conclusion, the results reveal when turkey semen is exposed to different bacteria, sperm motility is immediately reduced, which could be possible from bacterial attachment or bacterial by-products providing an undesirable environment for sperm.

Parthenogenetic embryos from unfertilized Chinese painted quail eggs alter albumen pH, gases, and ion concentrations during incubation.

Parthenogenesis is a form of embryonic development that occurs without fertilization. Recently, parthenogenesis has been reported in Chinese painted quail eggs. In Japanese quail, it has been shown that albumen pH of incubated fertile eggs is lower than that of incubated infertile eggs. However, it is unknown if alterations, similar to those in incubated fertile eggs, occur in albumen pH, gases, or ion concentrations from unfertilized eggs exhibiting parthenogenetic development. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if any differences in pH, gases, or ion concentrations exist between incubated unfertilized eggs exhibiting parthenogenetic development versus unfertilized eggs with no development over incubation. In this study, eggs were collected daily from Chinese painted quail hens that were separated from males at 4 weeks of age, before sexual maturity. Eggs were stored for 0 to 3 days at 20 °C and incubated at 37.5 °C for 12 days. Eggs were weighed before and after incubation to obtain percentage egg weight loss. After incubation, embryo size and albumen O2, CO2, Ca(2+), Na(+), and Cl(-) concentrations as well as pH were obtained from each incubated egg. Over incubation, albumen from unfertilized eggs exhibiting parthenogenetic development had a lower pH as well as less O2 and Cl(-), yet a higher Ca(2+) and Na(+) concentration as compared with the albumen of unfertilized eggs with no development. Also, eggs exhibiting parthenogenetic development had a higher albumen CO2 concentration as compared with eggs without development. The rate of egg weight loss was much lower in eggs exhibiting parthenogenetic development as compared with eggs without development. Also, as parthenogen size increased, there was a decrease in albumen pH, O2, and Cl(-), yet an increase in CO2 and Ca(2+). In conclusion, it appears that, over incubation, parthenogenetic development from unfertilized eggs alters the composition of albumen as compared with the albumen from unfertilized eggs with no parthenogenetic development.

Selection for the parthenogenetic trait in Chinese Painted Quail (Coturnix chinensis) affects hatchability parameters.

Poultry are capable of laying unfertilized eggs in which embryonic development occurs; this phenomenon is called parthenogenesis. Through genetic selection, the incidence of parthenogenesis in virgin Chinese Painted Quail hens can be increased. However, it is unknown if selection for this trait affects hatchability of fertilized eggs. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if genetic selection for parthenogenesis in virgin Chinese Painted Quail affects hatchability of mated hens. At 4 wk of age, females were separated from males and individually caged. Daily, eggs were collected, labeled, and stored from 0 to 3 d at 20°C then incubated at 37.5°C. At d 10 of incubation, eggs from virgin hens were broken out to determine the incidence of parthenogenesis. After the incidence of parthenogenesis in virgin hens was determined, hens were selected for mating. Eggs from the parent stock and generations 1 through 7 that did not hatch were examined for stage of hatching failure and categorized as infertile or possible parthenogens as well as early, middle, and late embryonic mortality. For hatch of set and hatch of fertile eggs, generation 1 hatched the greatest percentage of eggs compared with the other generations. Also, as the generation of selection increased, there was a linear decline in the percentage of eggs hatched for both hatch of set and hatch of fertile eggs. Additionally, generation 2 had the highest percentage of infertile eggs. There was a linear increase as generation of selection increased for both the percentage of eggs exhibiting possible parthenogens and early embryonic mortality. Unlike early embryonic mortality, the parent generation had the greatest percentage of embryos die in both the middle and late stage of incubation. In conclusion, it appears that selecting Chinese Painted Quail for the parthenogenetic trait impairs hatchability when hens are mated.

Impact of 6 different intestinal bacteria on broiler breeder sperm motility in vitro.

Male fertility is often evaluated by measuring sperm parameters, including concentration, viability, and motility. This is important because after copulation occurs, sperm must overcome many barriers in the female reproductive tract to fertilize the ovum. In mammalian species, sperm have been shown to have reduced motility when bacteria are present. In male broiler breeders, bacteria have been associated with spermatozoa, but their effect on motility has not been investigated. The sperm quality index is a modern rapid method of evaluating avian sperm motility. Therefore, the objective of this study was to use the sperm quality index to determine if broiler breeder sperm motility is reduced when semen is exposed to various bacteria. In this experiment, semen was collected from 20 broiler breeders to obtain a pooled neat semen sample. Six different intestinal bacteria, Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium bifermentans, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and Bifidobacterium animalis were cultured overnight. For each bacterium, 50 µL of semen was diluted in 450 µL of saline, sterile broth, or the overnight culture, creating 3 treatments. The experiment was repeated twice. In each treatment, 3 replicates were evaluated at 0 and 10 min postinoculation, creating a completely randomized design with a split plot over time. Also, the pH was measured for each treatment at 0 and 10 min. The results indicated that all broths containing bacteria immediately reduced broiler breeder sperm motility when compared with the controls (P < 0.0001), but broths containing Bifidobacterium or Lactobacillus virtually made sperm immotile. Although broth containing Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Bifidobacterium immediately reduced sperm motility, the reduction did not change over time. Broths containing E. coli, Clostridium, and Lactobacillus reduced sperm motility immediately, but over time motility continued to decrease. However, pH was increased when semen was exposed to the E. coli and Campylobacter treatment, but when semen was exposed to Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus treatments, pH was reduced. In conclusion, the results indicate that bacteria can reduce broiler breeder sperm motility upon exposure.

The relationship of parthenogenesis in virgin Chinese Painted quail (Coturnix chinensis) hens with embryonic mortality and hatchability following mating.

Unfertilized chicken, turkey, and quail eggs are capable of developing embryos by parthenogenesis. However, it is unknown if the physiological mechanisms regulating parthenogenesis in virgin hens may actually work against fertilization, embryonic development, and hatchability of eggs from these same hens following mating. Additionally, because most parthenogenic development closely resembles early embryonic mortality in fertilized eggs during the first 2 to 3 d of incubation, it is possible that many unhatched eggs classified as containing early embryonic mortality may actually be unfertilized eggs that contain parthenogens. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the relationship of parthenogenesis before mating with embryonic development and hatchability characteristics after mating. Based upon their ability to produce unfertilized eggs that contain parthenogens, 372 virgin Chinese Painted quail hens were divided into 7 groups, according to their incidence of parthenogenesis: 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and greater than 50% parthenogenesis. Males were then placed with these hens so that fertility, embryonic mortality, and hatchability could be evaluated for each hen. Hatchability of eggs set, hatchability of fertile eggs, and late embryonic mortality declined dramatically as the incidence of parthenogenesis increased. On the other hand, early embryonic mortality increased as parthenogenesis increased. Fertility was not different across the 7 parthenogenesis hen groups, perhaps because unfertilized eggs that exhibited parthenogenesis resembled and were therefore classified as early embryonic mortality. In conclusion, virgin quail hens that exhibit parthenogenesis appear to have impaired embryonic development and hatchability following mating. Additional sperm-egg interaction and embryonic research is needed to determine if a large portion of the early embryonic mortality experienced by mated hens that exhibit parthenogenesis as virgin hens is in fact embryonic development in unfertilized eggs.

The relationship of incubational egg weight loss with parthenogenesis in Chinese Painted quail (Coturnix chinensis).

Parthenogenesis, embryonic development of an unfertilized egg, has been studied extensively in turkeys. Recently it has been revealed that parthenogenesis also occurs in Chinese Painted quail, and the percentage of eggs exhibiting parthenogenesis is negatively correlated with clutch sequence position. In broiler breeders, it has been reported that the first egg of a clutch sequence loses less egg weight during incubation than subsequent eggs. Because the incidence of parthenogenesis is greater and egg weight loss is less in the first egg of a clutch sequence, it is possible that egg weight loss is less in parthenogenetic eggs. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if a relationship exists between egg weight loss (a measure of eggshell quality) and parthenogenesis. Daily, individual eggs were collected and labeled. To determine egg weight loss, eggs were weighed before setting and then again after 10 d of incubation. Eggs were stored for 0 to 3 d at 20°C and incubated at 37.5°C. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to determine if relationships existed between egg weight loss and average incidence of parthenogenesis, parthenogen size, egg storage, and average clutch sequence position for all hens examined (157) as well as only for hens that exhibited parthenogenesis (102). The percentage of egg weight loss was negatively correlated with the incidence of parthenogenetic eggs and parthenogen size. However, the percentage of egg weight loss was positively correlated with average clutch position. In conclusion, it appears that eggshell quality possibly influences the incidence of parthenogenesis in Chinese Painted quail eggs because as the percentage of egg weight loss decreases, the incidence of parthenogenesis increases.

Disinfection of eggshells using ultraviolet light and hydrogen peroxide independently and in combination.

Poor hatchability can occur due to eggshell bacterial contamination, which can be decreased by UV light or H(2)O(2) alone. However, antimicrobial effects of these 2 treatments combined, as well as optimum length of UV exposure, are not known. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the optimum length of UV exposure for maximum bacterial reduction and to determine if a greater bacterial reduction would occur using a combination of UV and H(2)O(2) compared with either treatment alone. The first experiment was conducted to determine the optimum length of UV exposure by exposing eggs to 4, 8, 16, and 32 min of UV. Three experiments were also conducted to determine what concentration of H(2)O(2) in combination with UV exposure would yield maximum bacterial reduction. For experiment 2, treatments consisted of a control and UV alone as well as 0, 1, 2, and 3% H(2)O(2) alone and in combination with UV for 8 min. In experiment 3, treatments consisted of a control, UV alone, 3% H(2)O(2) alone, as well as 0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, and 3% H(2)O(2) in combination with UV for 8 min. Experiment 4 used 10 treatments including a control and 1.5, 2, and 2.5% H(2)O(2) at UV exposure times of 2, 4, and 8 min for each H(2)O(2) concentration. Results indicated that every control eggshell contained bacteria, resulting in an average bacterial count of 4 log cfu/egg. Exposure to UV alone for 8 min yielded significant bacterial reductions without excessive egg heating. When administered independently, H(2)O(2) and UV each reduced eggshell bacterial counts by 2 log cfu/egg. The combination of 1.5% H(2)O(2) and UV for 8 min reduced bacterial counts by a maximum of 3 log cfu/egg, with only 35% of the eggs positive for bacteria. Because bacterial contamination was further reduced by using a combination of UV and H(2)O(2), it is possible that hatchability and chick quality of breeder eggs might be improved by such treatments.

Evaluation of different selective media and culturing techniques for the quantification of Campylobacter ssp. from broiler litter.

Poultry is a major reservoir for Campylobacter, the leading cause of foodborne illness in the United States, but how broilers become initially colonized is still under debate. Broiler litter is a potential source, but the best technique for quantifying Campylobacter from litter is still unknown. Therefore, our objectives were to determine if certain media are more selective for quantifying Campylobacter and if enrichment allows for the detection of stressed or viable but nonculturable cells from broiler litter samples. In this trial, 5 media and 2 culturing techniques were used to enumerate Campylobacter from broiler litter. The media used were campy-Line agar (CLA), campy-cefex agar (CCA), modified CCA, Campylobacter agar plates (CAP), and modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar. Litter samples were obtained from a commercial broiler house. Each sample was equally divided and diluted 10-fold into peptone, for direct plating, or 4-fold into Campylobacter enrichment broth. Samples diluted in peptone were direct-plated onto each media and incubated under microaerophilic conditions for 48 h at 42 degrees C. Samples diluted in enrichment broth were incubated under the same conditions for 24 h, then further diluted to 10-fold before plating. Plates from enriched samples were incubated for an additional 24 h after plating. After incubation, all plates (direct and enriched) were counted and presumptive positive colonies were confirmed using a Campylobacter latex agglutination kit. Results indicated that there was no difference in the ability of any of the selective media tested to grow Campylobacter. Direct-plated samples had a higher Campylobacter isolation rate compared with enriched samples. The CLA and CAP were able to suppress total bacterial growth better than modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate, modified CCA, and CCA. The CLA and CAP were the only media able to detect total bacterial population shifts over time. In conclusion, it is important before making a final decision on a selective medium to consider the medium's ability to suppress total bacterial growth as well as isolate Campylobacter.

Genetic selection increases parthenogenesis in Chinese painted quail (Coturnix chinensis).

Parthenogenesis, embryonic development of an unfertilized egg, occurs naturally in turkey, chicken, and quail species. In fact, parthenogenesis in turkeys and chickens can be increased by genetic selection. However, it is unknown if genetic selection for parthenogenesis is effective in quail or if selection for parthenogenesis affects egg production. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine if the incidence of parthenogenesis in quail could be increased by genetic selection and if selection for this trait affects egg production. To prevent fertilization, 1,090 females were caged separately from males at 4 wk of age and then caged individually at 6 wk of age to monitor egg production. Eggs were collected daily, labeled, and stored for 0 to 3 d. After 10 d of incubation, 20 unfertilized eggs from each hen were examined for the occurrence of parthenogenesis and embryonic growth. In the parent (P) generation and subsequent generations (1 to 4), hens laying eggs containing parthenogenetic development and males whose sisters or mothers exhibited parthenogenesis were used for breeding. There was a linear increase in the percentage of hens exhibiting parthenogenesis as generation of selection increased. With each successive generation, there was a quadratic response in the percentage of eggs positive for parthenogenesis. When compared with the P generation, parthenogenesis was almost 3 times greater for eggs laid by the fourth generation (4.6 to 12.5%, respectively). Even when only hens exhibiting parthenogenesis were examined, the percentage of eggs demonstrating embryonic development responded quadratically with generation of selection. The embryonic size at 10 d of incubation was greater for each subsequent generation when compared with the P generation. There was a linear decrease in both egg production and the average position of an egg in a clutch as generation of selection increased. In conclusion, genetic selection for parthenogenesis increased the incidence of parthenogenesis and embryonic size but decreased egg production and average position of an egg in a clutch as generations of selection increased.

Parthenogenesis in unfertilized eggs of Coturnix chinensis, the Chinese painted quail, and the effect of egg clutch position on embryonic development.

Parthenogenesis, embryonic development of an unfertilized egg, was studied for many years in turkeys. In fact, as many as 49% of unfertilized Beltsville Small White turkey eggs develop embryos. However, no research exists on parthenogenesis in quail. The Chinese painted quail is a close relative of the more common Japanese quail and, unlike turkeys or chickens, the small Chinese painted quail reaches sexual maturity rapidly, making it a great candidate for further research on parthenogenesis. Obviously, a better understanding of avian parthenogenesis should increase our knowledge of avian fertilization and early embryonic development. Therefore, we determined if unfertilized Chinese painted quail hens produce embryos. Second, we explored the possibility that position of the egg within the clutch influences parthenogenesis. When initial secondary sexual plumage was apparent at 4 wk of age, male chicks were separated from females to prevent fertilization. Hens were placed in individual cages near sexual maturity, at approximately 6 wk of age. Individual eggs were collected daily and labeled with hen number and date. Eggs were stored for 0 to 3 d at 20 degrees C before incubation at 37.5 degrees C. After 10 d of incubation, approximately 4,000 eggs from 300 laying hens were examined for embryonic development under a magnifying lamp. On average, 4.8% of the unfertilized eggs contained an abortive form of embryonic development consisting of undifferentiated cells and unorganized membranes. Approximately 27% of the laying hens produced at least 1 egg with parthenogenic development. However, about 10% (30) of these hens exhibited a predisposition for parthenogenesis by producing 2 or more unfertilized eggs with embryonic development. Twenty percent of the eggs from 2 hens produced embryonic development. Additionally, the first egg laid in a clutch was most likely to produce embryonic development, with a steady decline in the percentage of eggs with embryonic development as position in the clutch increased. In conclusion, the Chinese painted quail does exhibit parthenogenesis and clutch position influences the rate of naturally occurring parthenogenesis.

Effects of breeder hen age and dietary L-carnitine on progeny embryogenesis.

1. Ross 308 broiler breeder hens were given diets containing 0 or 25 mg L-carnitine/kg (8 replications per treatment) from 21 weeks of age. 2. Hens were inseminated with semen from Ross broiler breeder males. In a common facility, subsequent progeny hatchability and embryonic mortality at 25, 30, 32, and 38 weeks of breeder age were evaluated. 3. Subsequent egg component weights, incubational egg water loss, progeny embryo growth, and embryo, yolk sac and liver composition through 18 d of incubation at 27, 32, and 38 weeks of breeder age were evaluated. 4. Calculated additions of L-carnitine were in agreement with analysed contents of 3.5 and 31.1 mg free L-carnitine/kg of diet, respectively, and total L-carnitine concentrations increased by 48.6, 21.7, and 10.0% in 0-d yolk, 18-d yolk sac, and 18-d liver samples, respectively, due to the addition of dietary L-carnitine. 5. Supplemental L-carnitine resulted in increased (0.6%) relative 0-d egg yolk weight across weeks 27, 32, and 38, and reduced (0.38%) 18-d yolk sac palmitoleic acid concentration at week 27 without altering embryogenesis. 6. In conclusion, dietary L-carnitine (25 mg/kg of the diet) was deposited in the yolks of broiler breeder hens and was subsequently transferred to the embryonic liver via yolk sac absorption through 18 d of incubation. Furthermore, dietary L-carnitine supplementation increased ovarian follicle yolk deposition in 27-, 32-, and 38-week-old breeder hens, and influenced yolk sac fatty acid beta-oxidation in embryos from 27-week-old breeder hens causing yolk sac palmitoleic acid concentrations to be reduced by 18 d of incubation.

Similarities and differences between the sperm quality index and sperm mobility index of broiler breeder semen.

The sperm quality index (SQI) and sperm mobility index (SMI) both predict sperm motility. Previous research was conducted comparing the SMI with the SQI; however, semen was diluted improperly for the SQI (40-fold). For an accurate comparison, semen must be diluted 10-fold for the SQI. Therefore, the overall objective of this study, utilizing 4 experiments, was to examine the relationship of the SQI with the SMI when: 1) active, heat-inactivated, and boiled sperm were incubated and analyzed over 60 min, 2) motile and immotile sperm were combined, 3) dead sperm (boiled or frozen) and live sperm were combined, and 4) sperm were rendered immotile by adding Zn. In experiment 1, the SQI was stable throughout incubation for active sperm and zero for heat-inactivated and boiled sperm. The SMI from active sperm steadily increased over incubation. However, the SMI from heat-inactivated sperm increased drastically resulting in values higher than active sperm after 35 min of incubation. The SMI from active sperm was higher than boiled sperm throughout incubation. For experiment 2, a cubic increase in the SQI occurred as active sperm increased from 0 to 100%. However, there was no difference in SMI readings until samples contained 80% active sperm. In experiment 3, for both boiled and frozen sperm, as the percentage of viable sperm increased, there was a logarithmic increase in the SQI. The SMI values were similar for 0 and 100% viable sperm when using boiled sperm, and all SMI readings were similar to 0% viable for frozen sperm. For experiment 4, both the SQI and SMI values from semen incubated with Zn were lower than that of saline. The SQI from sperm incubated in saline was higher than that of Zn throughout incubation, yet there were no differences in SMI values after 90 min of incubation. In conclusion, both the SQI and SMI of sperm decrease in response to Zn. However, it appears that immotile and dead sperm are capable of increasing SMI values but not SQI values.

The immediate impact of semen diluent and rate of dilution on the sperm quality index, ATP utilization, gas exchange, and ionic balance of broiler breeder sperm.

The sperm quality index (SQI) is a tool used to predict overall rooster semen quality, fertility, and hatchability. However, semen must be diluted before SQI analysis, and research has shown that the SQI is most predictive of fertility at lower semen dilutions. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to determine why the SQI is not as predictive of fertility at higher semen dilutions and whether semen diluent type alters the SQI, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) utilization, gas exchange, and ionic balance of broiler breeder sperm. Semen was diluted with saline, seminal plasma, or minimum essential medium (MEM) from 2- to 200-fold. The following parameters were measured for each diluent type at each dilution: SQI, ATP, Na+, Ca2+, K+, Cl-, CO2, and O2. To examine the rate of sperm motility, the SQI was expressed as SQI/million sperm per mL (SQI/sperm). There was an interaction between diluent type and dilution for the SQI, SQI/sperm, CO2 generated, O2 used, as well as Na+, Ca2+, and K+ internalization. For sperm diluted with saline, the SQI declined more rapidly with increasing dilution. However, SQI/sperm increased rapidly when semen was diluted with MEM or SP. Sperm diluted in SP used ATP with increasing dilution whereas sperm diluted with saline and MEM generated ATP. Neat semen contained no free O2; however, each diluent type contained abundant O2 resulting in more O2 available as semen was diluted. Sperm diluted in SP produced more CO2 and used more O2 than semen diluted in saline or MEM. For SQI/sperm, ATP and CO2 generated, as well as Na+ and Ca2+ internalization, differences between diluent types occurred when semen was diluted 50-fold and greater. In conclusion, it appears that sperm motility, ATP utilization, gas exchange, and ionic balance are altered by diluent type and rate of dilution. These alterations in semen quality are exacerbated at semen dilutions of 50-fold and greater yielding an SQI that is not indicative of sperm motility or fertility.

Broiler breeder semen quality as affected by trace minerals in vitro.

Research has shown that trace elements, such as Se, Mn, and Zn, can alter reproductive functions. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the sperm quality index (SQI) and sperm viability as affected by various levels and sources of Se, Mn, and Zn when added in vitro to broiler breeder semen. In vitro treatments consisted of the following sources and levels of minerals: Control, no minerals added to sperm; seleno L-methionine, 4 levels ranging from 8.78 to 7,896 microg/L; sodium selenite, 4 levels ranging from 8.78 to 7,896 microg/L; MnSO4, 8 levels ranging from 6,500 to 65,000 mg/L; Zn 180 (Zinpro Corporation), 4 levels ranging from 0.65 to 650 mg/L; and ZnSO4, 4 levels ranging from 0.65 to 650 mg/L. The addition of 7,896 microg of sodium selenite/L to semen was detrimental to sperm motility. Also, MnSO4 adversely affected SQI and sperm viability at concentrations of 6,500 mg/L and greater. Sperm viability was decreased when 650 mg/L of Zn 180 was added to semen. Sperm motility was depressed by exposure to Zn 180 at 650 mg/L and ZnSO4 at 65 and 650 mg/L. Our results suggest that these trace minerals must act at the reproductive tissue level during spermatogenesis to improve semen quality. Direct in vitro application of these elements to semen appears to be detrimental to spermatozoa.