Climatic conditions affect shoot flammability by influencing flammability-related functional traits in nonfire-prone habitats.

Plant flammability is an important driver of wildfires, and flammability itself is determined by several plant functional traits. While many plant traits are influenced by climatic conditions, the interaction between climatic conditions and plant flammability has rarely been investigated. Here, we explored the relationships among climatic conditions, shoot-level flammability components, and flammability-related functional traits for 186 plant species from fire-prone and nonfire-prone habitats. For species originating from nonfire-prone habitats, those from warmer areas tended to have lower shoot moisture content and larger leaves, and had higher shoot flammability with higher ignitibility, combustibility, and sustainability. Plants in wetter areas tended to have lower shoot flammability with lower combustibility and sustainability due to higher shoot moisture contents. In fire-prone habitats, shoot flammability was not significantly related to any climatic factor. Our study suggests that for species originating in nonfire-prone habitats, climatic conditions have influenced plant flammability by shifting flammability-related functional traits, including leaf size and shoot moisture content. Climate does not predict shoot flammability in species from fire-prone habitats; here, fire regimes may have an important role in shaping plant flammability. Understanding these nuances in the determinants of plant flammability is important in an increasingly fire-prone world.

Activity Patterns of Captive Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens).

We studied the activity budgets of seven Ailurus fulgens, at three zoos within Australasia, using video cameras, and in-person observations. Red panda in this study followed a crepuscular activity pattern, with another short peak of activity around midnight. Ambient temperature greatly affected panda activity patterns; red panda allocated more time to resting and sleeping when temperatures increased. This preliminary study suggests how environmental factors affect captive red panda, which will help better inform captive facilities, and how this might impact their wild conspecifics.

Shoot-level flammability across the Dracophyllum (Ericaceae) phylogeny: evidence for flammability being an emergent property in a land with little fire.

Plant flammability varies across species, but the evolutionary basis for this variation is not well understood. Phylogenetic analysis of interspecific variation in flammability can provide insights into the evolution of plant flammability. We measured four components of flammability (ignitability, sustainability, combustibility and consumability) to assess the shoot-level flammability of 21 species of Dracophyllum (Ericaceae). Using a macroevolutionary approach, we explored phylogenetic patterns of variation in shoot-level flammability. Shoot-level flammability varied widely in Dracophyllum. Species in the subgenus Oreothamnus had higher flammability and smaller leaves than those in the subgenus Dracophyllum. Shoot flammability (ignitability, combustibility and consumability) and leaf length showed phylogenetic conservatism across genus Dracophyllum, but exhibited lability among some closely related species, such as D. menziesii and D. fiordense. Shoot flammability of Dracophyllum species was negatively correlated with leaf length and shoot moisture content, but had no relationship with the geographic distribution of Dracophyllum species. Shoot-level flammability varied widely in the genus Dracophyllum, but showed phylogenetic conservatism. The higher flammability of the subgenus Oreothamnus may be an incidental or emergent property as a result of the evolution of flammability-related traits, such as smaller leaves, which were selected for other functions and incidentally changed flammability.

Shoot flammability of vascular plants is phylogenetically conserved and related to habitat fire-proneness and growth form.

Terrestrial plants and fire have interacted for at least 420 million years1. Whether recurrent fire drives plants to evolve higher flammability and what the evolutionary pattern of plant flammability is remain unclear2-7. Here, we show that phylogeny, the susceptibility of a habitat to have recurrent fires (that is, fire-proneness) and growth form are important predictors of the shoot flammability of 194 indigenous and introduced vascular plant species (Tracheophyta) from New Zealand. The phylogenetic signal of the flammability components and the variation in flammability among phylogenetic groups (families and higher taxonomic level clades) demonstrate that shoot flammability is phylogenetically conserved. Some closely related species, such as in Dracophyllum (Ericaceae), vary in flammability, indicating that flammability exhibits evolutionary flexibility. Species in fire-prone ecosystems tend to be more flammable than species from non-fire-prone ecosystems, suggesting that fire may have an important role in the evolution of plant flammability. Growth form also influenced flammability-forbs were less flammable than grasses, trees and shrubs; by contrast, grasses had higher biomass consumption by fire than other groups. The results show that shoot flammability of plants is largely correlated with phylogenetic relatedness, and high flammability may result in parallel evolution driven by environmental factors, such as fire regime.

De Novo Transcriptome Assembly and Annotation of Liver and Brain Tissues of Common Brushtail Possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) in New Zealand: Transcriptome Diversity after Decades of Population Control.

The common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), introduced from Australia in the mid-nineteenth century, is an invasive species in New Zealand where it is widespread and forms the largest self-sustained reservoir of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) among wild populations. Conservation and agricultural authorities regularly apply a series of population control measures to suppress brushtail possum populations. The evolutionary consequence of more than half a century of intensive population control operations on the species' genomic diversity and population structure is hindered by a paucity of available genomic resources. This study is the first to characterise the functional content and diversity of brushtail possum liver and brain cerebral cortex transcriptomes. Raw sequences from hepatic cells and cerebral cortex were assembled into 58,001 and 64,735 transcripts respectively. Functional annotation and polymorphism assignment of the assembled transcripts demonstrated a considerable level of variation in the core metabolic pathways that represent potential targets for selection pressure exerted by chemical toxicants. This study suggests that the brushtail possum population in New Zealand harbours considerable variation in metabolic pathways that could potentially promote the development of tolerance against chemical toxicants.

An Evaluation of Systematic Versus Strategically-Placed Camera Traps for Monitoring Feral Cats in New Zealand.

We deploy camera traps to monitor feral cat (Felis catus) populations at two pastoral sites in Hawke's Bay, North Island, New Zealand. At Site 1, cameras are deployed at pre-determined GPS points on a 500-m grid, and at Site 2, cameras are strategically deployed with a bias towards forest and forest margin habitat where possible. A portion of cameras are also deployed in open farmland habitat and mixed scrub. We then use the abundance-induced heterogeneity Royle-Nichols model to estimate mean animal abundance and detection probabilities for cameras in each habitat type. Model selection suggests that only cat abundance varies by habitat type. Mean cat abundance is highest at forest margin cameras for both deployment methods (3 cats [95% CI 1.9-4.5] Site 1, and 1.7 cats [95% CI 1.2-2.4] Site 2) but not substantially higher than in forest habitats (1.7 cats [95% CI 0.8-3.6] Site 1, and 1.5 cats [95% CI 1.1-2.0] Site 2). Model selection shows detection probabilities do not vary substantially by habitat (although they are also higher for cameras in forest margins and forest habitats) and are similar between sites (8.6% [95% CI 5.4-13.4] Site 1, and 8.3% [5.8-11.9] Site 2). Cat detections by camera traps are higher when placed in forests and forest margins; thus, strategic placement may be preferable when monitoring feral cats in a pastoral landscape.

Assessing subspecies status of leopards (Panthera pardus) of northern Pakistan using mitochondrial DNA.

Despite being classified as critically endangered, little work has been done on leopard protection in Pakistan. Once widely present throughout this region, leopards are now sparsely distributed, and possibly extinct from much of their previously recorded habitat. While leopards show morphological and genetic variation across their species range worldwide, resulting in the classification of nine different subspecies, the leopard genetic structure across Pakistan is unknown, with previous studies including only a very limited sampling. To clarify the genetic status of leopards in Pakistan we investigated the sequence variation in the subunit 5 of the mitochondrial gene NADH from 43 tissue samples and compared it with 238 sequences available from online databases. Phylogenetic analysis clearly separates the Pakistani leopards from the African and Arabian clades, confirming that leopards from Pakistan are members of the Asian clade. Furthermore, we identified two separate subspecies haplotypes within our dataset: P. p. fusca (N = 23) and P. p. saxicolor (N = 12).

Green firebreaks as a management tool for wildfires: Lessons from China.

Wildfire is a widespread natural hazard that is expected to increase in areal extent, severity and frequency with ongoing changes in climate and land-use. One tool that has been used in an effort to reduce the damage caused by wildfires is green firebreaks: strips of low-flammability vegetation grown at strategic locations in the landscape. Green firebreaks are increasingly being recommended for wildfire management and have been implemented in many countries. The approach is particularly widely used in China, where more than 364,000 km of green firebreaks have been planted and a further 167,000 km are planned for construction before 2025. China is not only a world leader in the implementation of green firebreaks but has also led the way in testing the effectiveness of green firebreaks and in providing guidelines for green firebreak construction. However, most of this research has been reported in the non-English literature, and so is inaccessible to many readers. Here we review the extensive research on the construction and effectiveness of green firebreaks in China and examine how the lessons learned from this research could contribute to the effective implementation of green firebreaks globally. Chinese studies suggest that the ideal species for green firebreaks should meet trait requirements from three perspectives: ecological, silvicultural and economic. Green firebreaks with a multi-layered structure and a closed canopy have the potential to be an effective, long-term, biodiversity-friendly and low-cost tool for fire suppression, although they complement rather than replace other more traditional fire suppression approaches.

Mitogenomics data reveal effective population size, historical bottlenecks, and the effects of hunting on New Zealand fur seals (Arctocephalus forsteri).

The New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) passed through a population bottleneck due to commercial sealing during the eighteenth to nineteenth centuries. To facilitate future management options, we reconstructed the demographic history of New Zealand fur seals in a Bayesian framework using maternally inherited, mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mitogenomic data suggested two separate clades (most recent common ancestor 5000 years ago) of New Zealand fur seals that survived large-scale human harvest. Mitochondrial haplotype diversity was high, with 45 singletons identified from 46 individuals although mean nucleotide diversity was low (0.012 ± 0.0061). Variation was not constrained geographically. Analyses of mitogenomes support the hypothesis for a population bottleneck approximately 35 generations ago, which coincides with the peak of commercial sealing. Mitogenomic data are consistent with a pre-human effective population size of approximately 30,000 that first declined to around 10,000 (due to the impact of Polynesian colonization, particularly in the first 100 years of their arrival into New Zealand), and then to 100-200 breeding individuals during peak of commercial sealing.

Complete mitochondrial genome of the stoat (Mustela erminea) and New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) and their significance for mammalian phylogeny.

The complete mitochondrial genome of three mustelid species, stoats (Mustela erminea), weasels (Mustela nivalis) and ferrets (Mustela furo), and the New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) were sequenced using direct mitochondrial DNA extraction and overlapping long PCRs. The usual 37 mammalian mitochondrial genes (13 protein coding genes, 22 t-RNA and 2 r-RNA) were identified in all four mitogenomes. The divergence of stoats from other members of the sub-family Mustelinae was dated 4.5 million years ago. The mitogenomic data were consistent with a bear-like origin of seals.

The effects of island forest restoration on open habitat specialists: the endangered weevil Hadramphus spinipennis Broun and its host-plant Aciphylla dieffenbachii Kirk.

Human alteration of islands has made restoration a key part of conservation management. As islands are restored to their original state, species interactions change and some populations may be impacted. In this study we examine the coxella weevil, (Hadramphus spinipennis Broun) and its host-plant Dieffenbach's speargrass (Aciphylla dieffenbachii Kirk), which are both open habitat specialists with populations on Mangere and Rangatira Islands, Chathams, New Zealand. Both of these islands were heavily impacted by the introduction of livestock; the majority of the forest was removed and the weevil populations declined due to the palatability of their host-plant to livestock. An intensive reforestation program was established on both islands over 50 years ago but the potential impacts of this restoration project on the already endangered H. spinipennis are poorly understood. We combined genetic and population data from 1995 and 2010-2011 to determine the health and status of these species on both islands. There was some genetic variation between the weevil populations on each island but little variation within the species as a whole. The interactions between the weevil and its host-plant populations appear to remain intact on Mangere, despite forest regeneration. A decline in weevils and host-plant on Rangatira does not appear to be caused by canopy regrowth. We recommend that (1) these populations be monitored for ongoing effects of long-term reforestation, (2) the cause of the decline on Rangatira be investigated, and (3) the two populations of weevils be conserved as separate evolutionarily significant units.

Phylogenetic congruence of lichenised fungi and algae is affected by spatial scale and taxonomic diversity.

The role of species' interactions in structuring biological communities remains unclear. Mutualistic symbioses, involving close positive interactions between two distinct organismal lineages, provide an excellent means to explore the roles of both evolutionary and ecological processes in determining how positive interactions affect community structure. In this study, we investigate patterns of co-diversification between fungi and algae for a range of New Zealand lichens at the community, genus, and species levels and explore explanations for possible patterns related to spatial scale and pattern, taxonomic diversity of the lichens considered, and the level sampling replication. We assembled six independent datasets to compare patterns in phylogenetic congruence with varied spatial extent of sampling, taxonomic diversity and level of specimen replication. For each dataset, we used the DNA sequences from the ITS regions of both the fungal and algal genomes from lichen specimens to produce genetic distance matrices. Phylogenetic congruence between fungi and algae was quantified using distance-based redundancy analysis and we used geographic distance matrices in Moran's eigenvector mapping and variance partitioning to evaluate the effects of spatial variation on the quantification of phylogenetic congruence. Phylogenetic congruence was highly significant for all datasets and a large proportion of variance in both algal and fungal genetic distances was explained by partner genetic variation. Spatial variables, primarily at large and intermediate scales, were also important for explaining genetic diversity patterns in all datasets. Interestingly, spatial structuring was stronger for fungal than algal genetic variation. As the spatial extent of the samples increased, so too did the proportion of explained variation that was shared between the spatial variables and the partners' genetic variation. Different lichen taxa showed some variation in their phylogenetic congruence and spatial genetic patterns and where greater sample replication was used, the amount of variation explained by partner genetic variation increased. Our results suggest that the phylogenetic congruence pattern, at least at small spatial scales, is likely due to reciprocal co-adaptation or co-dispersal. However, the detection of these patterns varies among different lichen taxa, across spatial scales and with different levels of sample replication. This work provides insight into the complexities faced in determining how evolutionary and ecological processes may interact to generate diversity in symbiotic association patterns at the population and community levels. Further, it highlights the critical importance of considering sample replication, taxonomic diversity and spatial scale in designing studies of co-diversification.

Behavioural evolution in penguins does not reflect phylogeny.

Over the past two decades, behavioural biologists and ecologists have made effective use of the comparative method, but have often stopped short of adopting an explicitly phylogenetic approach. We examined 68 behaviour and life history (BLH) traits of 15 penguin species to: (i) infer penguin phylogeny, (ii) assess homology of behavioural characters, and (iii) evaluate hypotheses about character evolution and ancestral states. Parsimony analysis of the BLH dataset found either two shortest trees (characters coded as unordered) or a single shortest tree (characters coded as a combination of unordered and Dollo). The BLH data had significant structure. Kishino-Hasegawa tests indicated that BLH trees were significantly different from most previous estimates of penguin phylogeny. The BLH phylogeny generated from Dollo characters appeared to be less accurate than the tree derived from the completely unordered dataset. Dividing BLH data into display and non-display traits resulted in no significant differences in level of homoplasy and no difference in the accuracy of phylogeny. Tests for homology of BLH traits were performed by mapping the characters onto a molecular tree. Assuming that independent gains are less likely than losses of character states, 65 of the 68 characters were likely to be homologous across taxa, and at least several characters appeared to have been stable since the origin of modern penguins around 30 Myr. Finally, the likely BLH traits of the most recent common ancestor of extant penguins were reconstructed from character states along the internal branch leading to the penguins. This analysis suggested that the "proto-penguin" probably had a similar life history to current temperate penguins but few ritualized behaviours. A southern, cool-temperate origin of penguins is suggested.

Parasites lost - do invaders miss the boat or drown on arrival?

Host species that colonize new regions often lose parasite species. Using population arrival and establishment data for New Zealand's introduced bird species and their ectoparasitic chewing lice species, we test the relative importance of different processes and mechanisms in causing parasite species loss. Few lice failed to arrive in New Zealand with their hosts due to being missed by chance in the sample of hosts from the original population (missing the boat). Rather, most lice were absent because their hosts or the parasite themselves failed to establish populations in their new environment. Given they arrived and their host established, parasite persistence was more strongly related to factors associated with transmission efficiency (number of host individuals introduced, host body size, host sociality and parasite suborder) than parasite propagule pressure and aggregation. Such insights into parasite success are invaluable to both understanding and managing their impact.

Evolution of New Zealand's terrestrial fauna: a review of molecular evidence.

New Zealand biogeography has been dominated by the knowledge that its geophysical history is continental in nature. The continental crust (Zealandia) from which New Zealand is formed broke from Gondwanaland ca 80 Ma, and there has existed a pervading view that the native biota is primarily a product of this long isolation. However, molecular studies of terrestrial animals and plants in New Zealand indicate that many taxa arrived since isolation of the land, and that diversification in most groups is relatively recent. This is consistent with evidence for species turnover from the fossil record, taxonomic affinity, tectonic evidence and observations of biological composition and interactions. Extinction, colonization and speciation have yielded a biota in New Zealand which is, in most respects, more like that of an oceanic archipelago than a continent.

The great escape: do parasites break Dollo's law?

A long-held assumption in evolutionary studies is that a character that changes from a complex to a simple state is unlikely to return to the same complex state. The extreme version of this assumption has been codified as Dollo's law. Unfortunately, this paradigm has supported the idea that simple and complex traits are qualitatively different, when it is more sensible to suggest that there is a quantitative difference. Dollo's law has been the predominant paradigm in parasitology, where a move from a free-living state to parasitism has been considered a unidirectional pathway or 'one-way trip' because organisms lose the structures required to return to the free-living state. Several recent studies have suggested that complex structures can be regained from simple traits, and we suggest that this is also possible for parasites.

Multi-host parasite species in cophylogenetic studies.

Cophylogenetic studies examine the relationship between host and parasite evolution. One aspect of cophylogenetic studies that has had little modern discussion is parasites with multiple definitive hosts. Parasite species with multiple host species are anomalous as, under a codivergence paradigm, speciation by the hosts should cause speciation of their parasites. We discuss situations such as cryptic parasite species, recent host switching or failure to speciate that may generate multi-host parasites. We suggest methods to identify which of the mechanisms have led to multi-host parasitism. Applying the suggested methods may allow multi-host parasites to be integrated more fully into cophylogenetic studies.

Combined molecular and morphological phylogenetic analyses of the New Zealand wolf spider genus Anoteropsis (Araneae: Lycosidae).

Datasets from the mitochondrial gene regions NADH dehydrogenase subunit I (ND1) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) of the 20 species in the New Zealand wolf spider (Lycosidae) genus Anoteropsis were generated. Sequence data were phylogenetically analysed using parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses. The phylogenies generated from the ND1 and COI sequence data and a previously generated morphological dataset were significantly congruent (p<0.001). Sequence data were combined with morphological data and phylogenetically analysed using parsimony. The ND1 region sequenced included part of tRNA(Leu(CUN)), which appears to have an unstable amino-acyl arm and no TpsiC arm in lycosids. Analyses supported the existence of five species groups within Anoteropsis and the monophyly of species represented by multiple samples. A radiation of Anoteropsis species within the last five million years is inferred from the ND1 and COI likelihood phylograms, habitat and geological data, which also indicates that Anoteropsis arrived in New Zealand some time after it separated from Gondwana.