Differential effects of the pharmacological stressor yohimbine on impulsive decision making and response inhibition.

RATIONALE: High levels of impulsivity have been associated with psychiatric disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance abuse. In addition, acute stress is known to exacerbate many psychiatric symptoms in impulse control disorders. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of the current study was to investigate the acute effects of the pharmacological stressor yohimbine on response inhibition and impulsive choice. METHODS: A group of male rats (n = 12) was trained in the delayed reward task (DRT) to assess impulsive choice. A separate group (n = 10) was trained in the stop-signal task (SST) to measure response inhibition. Upon stable responding, the effects of yohimbine (0, 1.25, 2.5, and 5 mg/kg i.p.) were tested in a Latin square design. RESULTS: Acute yohimbine significantly increased the preference for the large and delayed reinforcer in the DRT, indicating a decrease in impulsive choice. On the contrary, the effect size of 1.25 mg/kg yohimbine on stop-signal reaction times correlated negatively with baseline performance, suggesting a baseline-dependent effect on response inhibition as measured in the SST. CONCLUSIONS: The current data suggest that the effects of the pharmacological stressor yohimbine on impulse control strongly depend on the type of impulsive behavior. Pharmacological stress decreased impulsive decision making, an observation that is in line with previously published rodent studies. By contrast, the lowest dose of yohimbine revealed a baseline-dependent effect on response inhibition. As such, the effects of yohimbine are largely comparable to the effects of psychostimulants on impulsivity and may support the notion of cross sensitization of stress and psychostimulants.

Neural substrates of impulsive decision making modulated by modafinil in alcohol-dependent patients.

BACKGROUND: Impulsive decision making is a hallmark of frequently occurring addiction disorders including alcohol dependence (AD). Therefore, ameliorating impulsive decision making is a promising target for the treatment of AD. Previous studies have shown that modafinil enhances cognitive control functions in various psychiatric disorders. However, the effects of modafinil on delay discounting and its underlying neural correlates have not been investigated as yet. The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of modafinil on neural correlates of impulsive decision making in abstinent AD patients and healthy control (HC) subjects. METHOD: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subjects cross-over study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was conducted in 14 AD patients and 16 HC subjects. All subjects participated in two fMRI sessions in which they either received a single dose of placebo or 200 mg of modafinil 2 h before the session. During fMRI, subjects completed a delay-discounting task to measure impulsive decision making. RESULTS: Modafinil improved impulsive decision making in AD pateints, which was accompanied by enhanced recruitment of frontoparietal regions and reduced activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Moreover, modafinil-induced enhancement of functional connectivity between the superior frontal gyrus and ventral striatum was specifically associated with improvement in impulsive decision making. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that modafinil can improve impulsive decision making in AD patients through an enhanced coupling of prefrontal control regions and brain regions coding the subjective value of rewards. Therefore, the current study supports the implementation of modafinil in future clinical trials for AD.

[Impulse control in addiction: a translational perspective]. / Impulsregulatie en verslaving: een translationeel onderzoek.

BACKGROUND: Impulsivity is a hallmark of addiction and predicts treatment response and relapse. Impulsivity is, however, a complex construct. Translational cross-species research is needed to give us greater insight into the neurobiology and the role of impulsivity in addiction and to help with the development of new treatment strategies for improving patients' impulse control. AIM: To review recent evidence concerning the concept of impulsivity and the role of impulsivity in addiction. METHOD: The concept and neurobiology of impulsivity are reviewed from a translational perspective. The role of impulsivity in addiction and implications for treatment are discussed. RESULTS: Our recent translational cross-species study indicates that impulsivity is made up of several, separate independent features with partly distinct underlying neurobiological substrates. There are also indications that these features make a unique and independent contribution to separate stages of the addiction cycle. CONCLUSION: In addition, the improvement of impulse control is a promising new target area for treatments that could lead to better results. However, those involved in developing new treatment strategies will have to take into account the complexity and multidimensional character of impulsivity.

Effects of amphetamine on dopamine release in the rat nucleus accumbens shell region depend on cannabinoid CB1 receptor activation.

The psychostimulant drug amphetamine is often prescribed to treat Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The behavioral effects of the psychostimulant drug amphetamine depend on its ability to increase monoamine neurotransmission in brain regions such as the nucleus accumbens (NAC) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Recent behavioral data suggest that the endocannabinoid system also plays a role in this respect. Here we investigated the role of cannabinoid CB1 receptor activity in amphetamine-induced monoamine release in the NAC and/or mPFC of rats using in vivo microdialysis. Results show that systemic administration of a low, clinically relevant dose of amphetamine (0.5mg/kg) robustly increased dopamine and norepinephrine release (to ∼175-350% of baseline values) in the NAC shell and core subregions as well as the ventral and dorsal parts of the mPFC, while moderately enhancing extracellular serotonin levels (to ∼135% of baseline value) in the NAC core only. Although systemic administration of the CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (0-3mg/kg) alone did not affect monoamine release, it dose-dependently abolished amphetamine-induced dopamine release specifically in the NAC shell. SR141716A did not affect amphetamine-induced norepinephrine or serotonin release in any of the brain regions investigated. Thus, the effects of acute CB1 receptor blockade on amphetamine-induced monoamine transmission were restricted to dopamine, and more specifically to mesolimbic dopamine projections into the NAC shell. This brain region- and monoamine-selective role of CB1 receptors is suggested to subserve the behavioral effects of amphetamine.

Independent genetic loci for sensorimotor gating and attentional performance in BXD recombinant inbred strains.

A startle reflex in response to an intense acoustic stimulus is inhibited when a barely detectable pulse precedes the startle stimulus by 30-500 ms. It has been theorized that this phenomenon, named prepulse inhibition (PPI) of a startle response, is an automatic early-stage gating process contributing to the ability to focus attention. Deficits in PPI may therefore contribute to deficits in attentional processing. Both deficits are observed in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Here, we investigated whether there is overlap in genetic control of PPI and attentional processing phenotypes in the panel of BXD recombinant inbred strains of mice. Using an individually titrated prepulse intensity to handle differences in perceived prepulse intensities among strains, we identified a significant quantitative trait locus (QTL) for PPI at the mid-distal end of chromosome 17. A measure of attentional processing in the five-choice serial reaction time task, response variability, mapped to a different locus on proximal-mid chromosome 16. In addition, the estimated genetic and environmental correlations between PPI and several attentional phenotypes were low and not significant. Taken together, the observation of separate genetic loci for PPI and attention and the absence of genetic and environmental correlations indicate that differences in sensorimotor gating do not contribute to differences in attentional performance. Therefore, it is worth pursuing the causative genes residing in both attention and PPI QTL, as these may contribute to separate molecular pathways implicated in neuropsychiatric diseases, such as schizophrenia.

Activity and impulsive action are controlled by different genetic and environmental factors.

Both impulsivity in operant tasks and locomotor activity in a novel open field are known to predict the development of addiction-related behavior in rodents. In this study, we investigated to what extent impulsivity in the five-choice serial reaction time task and various measures of novelty exploration are controlled by shared genetic and environmental factors in 12 different inbred mouse strains. No genetic correlation was observed between the level of impulsivity and levels of activity, a low correlation was observed with traditional measures of anxiety-like behavior (impulsive strains tend to be less anxious) and a highly significant correlation was found between impulsivity and specific aspects of movement. Furthermore, we found that impulsivity and all measures of novelty exploration were under control of different environmental factors. Interestingly, in the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, a brain region involved in impulsivity and activity in novelty exploration tests; these behavioral measures correlated with the expression of different genes (respectively, Frzb, Snx5, BC056474 and the previously identified Glo1). Taken together, our study shows that impulsivity and activity in novelty exploration tests are genetically and environmentally distinct, suggesting that mouse models of these behaviors provide complementary insights into the development of substance abuse disorder.

Strain specificity and cholinergic modulation of visuospatial attention in three inbred mouse strains.

The tremendous increase in the use of mouse inbred strains and mutant mice to study the molecular basis of psychiatric disorders urges for a better understanding of attentional performance in mice. To this aim, we investigated possible strain differences in performance and cholinergic modulation of visuospatial attention in three widely used mouse inbred strains (129S2/SvHsd, C57BL/6JOlaHsd and DBA/2OlaHsd) in the five-choice serial reaction time task. Results indicated that after extended training, performance of 129S2/SvHsd mice was superior to that of C57BL/6JOlaHsd and DBA/2OlaHsd mice in terms of attention, omission errors, inhibitory control and latencies to correct choice. Increasing the attentional load resulted in comparable decrements in attention in all strains and inhibitory control impairments that were most pronounced in DBA/2OlaHsd mice. Further pharmacological evaluation indicated that all strains showed attentional impairments after treatment with the muscarinic and nicotinic antagonists scopolamine and mecamylamine, respectively. 129S2/SvHsd mice were less sensitive, whereas DBA/2OlaHsd mice appeared more sensitive to the detrimental effects of mecamylamine. In addition, subchronic, but not acute, nicotine treatment slightly improved attentional performance in all strains to the same extent. In conclusion, our data indicate strain specificity with particularly good performance of 129S2/SvHsd mice and strong cholinergic involvement in visuospatial attention in mice.

Psychopharmacology of male rat sexual behavior: modeling human sexual dysfunctions?

Most of our current understanding of the neurobiology, neuroanatomy and psychopharmacology of sexual behavior and ejaculatory function has been derived from preclinical studies in the rat. When a large population of male rats is tested on sexual activity during a number of successive tests, over time individual rats display a very stable sexual behavior that is either slow, normal or fast as characterized by the number of ejaculations performed. These sexual endophenotypes are postulated as rat counterparts of premature (fast rats) or retarded ejaculation (slow rats). Psychopharmacology in these endophenotypes helps to delineate the underlying mechanisms and pathology. This is illustrated by the effects of serotonergic antidepressants and serotonergic compounds on sexual and ejaculatory behavior of rats. These preclinical studies and models contribute to a better understanding of the neurobiology of ejaculation and boost the development of novel drug targets to treat ejaculatory disorders such as premature and retarded ejaculation.

Animal models of ejaculatory behavior.

Premature ejaculation is generally regarded the most frequent male ejaculatory complaint and has been considered a psychosexual disorder with psychogenic aetiology. The efficacy of various antidepressants, however, to delay ejaculation in men and to pharmacologically treat premature ejaculation suggests a strong neurobiological involvement. Most of our current understanding of the neurobiology and neuroanatomy of sexual behavior and ejaculatory function has been derived from preclinical studies using several laboratory species. In the present paper we will review the various animal models that have been developed to further study ejaculatory function in the laboratory rat. In addition, we will briefly review the effects of serotonergic antidepressants and serotonergic compounds on sexual and ejaculatory behavior. Together, these preclinical studies may contribute to a better understanding of the neurobiology of ejaculation and help the development of novel drug targets to treat ejaculatory disorders such as premature ejaculation.

Effects of chronic paroxetine pretreatment on (+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propyl-amino)tetralin induced c-fos expression following sexual behavior.

Chronic treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine impairs the functioning of 5-HT(1A) receptors involved in ejaculation. This could underlie the development of delayed ejaculation often reported by men treated with paroxetine. The neurobiological substrate linking the effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-treatment and 5-HT(1A) receptor activation with ejaculation was investigated. Male Wistar rats that were pretreated with paroxetine (20 mg/kg/day p.o.) or vehicle for 22 days and had received an additional injection with the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT ((+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propyl-amino)tetralin; 0.4 mg/kg s.c.) or saline on day 22, 30 min prior to a sexual behavior test, were perfused 1 h after the sexual behavior test. Brains were processed for Fos-, and oxytocin immunohistochemistry. The drug treatments markedly changed both sexual behavior and the pattern and number of Fos-immunoreactive cells in the brain. Chronic pretreatment with paroxetine caused delayed ejaculation. Acute injection with 8-OH-DPAT facilitated ejaculation in vehicle-pretreated rats, notably evident in a strongly reduced intromission frequency, whereas 8-OH-DPAT had no effects in paroxetine-pretreated rats. Chronic treatment with paroxetine reduced Fos-immunoreactivity in the locus coeruleus, and prevented the increase in Fos-immunoreactive neurons induced by 8-OH-DPAT in the oxytocinergic magnocellular part of the paraventricular nucleus as well as in the locus coeruleus. Since oxytocin and noradrenalin facilitate ejaculation, the alterations in Fos-IR in these areas could connect selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment and 5-HT(1A) receptor activation to ejaculation. Chronic paroxetine treatment and 8-OH-DPAT changed c-fos expression in a number of other brain areas, indicating that Fos-immunohistochemistry is a useful tool to find locations where selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and 8-OH-DPAT exert their effects.

The 5-HT(1A) receptor knockout mouse and anxiety.

The 5-HT(1A) receptor has been implicated in the modulation of anxiety processes, mainly via pharmacological experiments. The recent production, in three independent research groups, of 5-HT(1A) receptor knockout (R KO) mice in three different genetic backgrounds (C57BL/6J, 129/Sv, Swiss-Webster) led to the intriguing finding that all mice, independent from the genetic background strain from which the null mutants were made, showed an "anxious" phenotype compared to corresponding wild-type mice. The present paper reviews the behavioral findings in these three KO lines and focuses on new findings in the 129/Sv-KO mice. These mice were more anxious or stress-prone only under specific conditions (high stress) and not as broadly as suggested from the initial studies. The 5-HT(1A) R KO made in the Swiss-Webster background displays disturbances in the GABA(A)-benzodiazepine (BZ) receptor system in the brain, including downregulation of GABA(A) alpha1 and alpha2 subunits in the amygdala. In contrast, the GABA(A)-BZ receptor system seems to function normally in the 5-HT(1A) R KO in the 129/Sv background suggesting that changes in the GABA(A)-BZ receptor system may not be a prerequisite for anxiety but rather could have a modifying effect on this phenotype. It can be concluded that the constitutive absence of the 5-HT(1A) receptor gene and receptor leads to a more "anxious" mouse, dependent on the stress level but independent from the strain. Depending on the genetic background, this null mutation may be associated with changes in GABA(A)-ergic neurotransmission. It is as yet unclear which mechanisms are involved in this intriguing differentiation.

Stress-induced hyperthermia in the 5-HT(1A) receptor knockout mouse is normal.

BACKGROUND: Several studies on serotonin 1A (5-HT(1A)) receptor knockout mice in different genetic backgrounds indicate that such mice display a more anxious phenotype than their corresponding wild types. We hypothesized that the 5-HT(1A) receptor knockout mice would show a different phenotype than the wild type mice in the stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH) paradigm, which tests putative anxiolytic effects of drugs. Moreover, on pharmacologic challenges with the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist flesinoxan we expected an absence of the functional response in knockout mice relative to wild type mice. METHODS: Effects of the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist flesinoxan, alone or in combination with the 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist WAY-100635, and the gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABA(A))-benzodiazepine receptor agonist diazepam were studied in the SIH paradigm in male 129/Sv 5-HT(1A) receptor knockout and wild type mice. In addition, the effects of flesinoxan on plasma corticosterone concentrations were determined. RESULTS: Plasma corticosterone concentrations were dose dependently elevated by flesinoxan in wild type mice but not in knockout mice. Flesinoxan dose dependently decreased SIH in wild type mice but not in knockout mice. The flesinoxan effect in wild type mice was blocked by WAY-100635. Furthermore, diazepam decreased SIH in both genotypes. There were no differences in basic SIH responses between wild type and knockout mice. CONCLUSIONS: 5 -HT(1A) receptor knockout mice display a normal SIH response, and results indicate, based on the SIH, that the GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor complex functions normally.

5-HT1B receptor knockout, but not 5-HT1A receptor knockout mice, show reduced startle reactivity and footshock-induced sensitization, as measured with the acoustic startle response.

To investigate whether the hyperreactivity to mild environmental and novel stimuli in 5-HT1B receptor knockout (1BKO) mice, as suggested by measures of exploratory, aggressive, and impulsive behaviors, can be extended to phasic stimuli, 1BKO and wildtype mice were tested in acoustic startle reactivity and plasticity paradigms, including habituation, prepulse inhibition, and footshock-induced sensitization of the startle response. Furthermore, we compared 5-HT1A receptor knockout (1AKO) and 1BKO mice to further test the suggested opposite behavioral profiles in these two genotypes. Results show that startle reactivity and footshock-induced sensitization was reduced in 1BKO mice, with no changes in habituation or PPI. In contrast, 1AKO mice did not differ from WT mice in any of the measures. These results indicate that an absence of 5-HT1B receptors, but not of 5-HT1A receptors, affects the modulation of startle reactivity and footshock-induced sensitization, without influencing startle plasticity. Moreover, this study suggests that 1AKO mice display a distinct, but not opposite behavioral profile from 1BKO mice. Furthermore, it is concluded that the hyperreactivity in 1BKO mice cannot be generalized to all stimuli, including the startling stimuli used in this study, but is probably restricted to mild environmental stimuli only.

Effects of drug discrimination history on anti-punishment properties of chlordiazepoxide in rats.

Several studies have indicated that acquiring discriminative stimulus control for a certain anxiolytic drug influences its subsequent anti-conflict properties. To further elaborate on the question whether drug discrimination procedures affect behaviour in a conflict paradigm, a classical two-lever drug discrimination procedure was combined with an operant conflict procedure within the same animals. To this extent, rats were trained to discriminate the anxiolytic chlordiazepoxide (CDP, 30 mg/kg, po) from saline (SAL), and subsequently punished responding periods were introduced within the same session. In addition to the rats that were trained to discriminate CDP from vehicle, a group of rats was trained on a random relationship between CDP and the rewarded lever. CDP and alprazolam completely substituted for CDP, whereas mianserin did not. Responding during punished components in a session was increased by CDP and alprazolam, but not by mianserin in rats that were trained to discriminate CDP from vehicle and in randomly trained rats. The data indicate that rats can be reliably trained and tested in drug discrimination and conflict procedures within a single session and that CDP's discriminative stimulus does not alter its anti-conflict effects.

Discriminative stimulus properties of mCPP and alprazolam are not mediated by anxiety.

We investigated whether the interoceptive cues mediated by the anxiolytic benzodiazepine receptor agonist alprazolam and the anxiogenic serotonin (5-HT)(1B/2C) receptor agonist 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP) in rats are related to anxiety. mCPP-induced anxiety in humans can be blocked with alprazolam, and if mCPP drug discrimination is to be used as a model of anxiety, mCPP's stimulus should be blocked by alprazolam. Therefore, two groups of rats were trained to discriminate either alprazolam (2 mg/kg, p.o.) or mCPP (2 mg/kg, p.o.) from vehicle in a two-level operant drug discrimination procedure. Cross antagonism tests were performed with alprazolam and mCPP. mCPP did not antagonize alprazolam's stimulus to any extent, but disrupted responding severely. Low and intermediate doses of alprazolam (1.0-4.0 mg/kg, p.o.) did not antagonize the mCPP discriminative stimulus; only a high dose of 8.0 mg/kg (p.o.) partially antagonized mCPP but disrupted responding in most of the animals. We conclude that, at best, there is only weak evidence to suggest that the interoceptive cues of alprazolam and mCPP are mediated by modulation of anxiety processes, and that the mCPP drug discrimination as a model for anxiety is unreliable.