Wronger than wrong: Graded mapping of the errors of an avatar in the performance monitoring system of the onlooker.

EEG studies show that observing errors in one's own or others' actions triggers specific electro-cortical signatures in the onlooker's brain, but whether the brain error-monitoring system operates according to graded or discrete rules is still largely unknown. To explore this issue, we combined immersive virtual reality with EEG recording in participants who observed an avatar reaching-to-grasp a glass from a first-person perspective. The avatar could perform correct or erroneous actions. Erroneous grasps were defined as small or large depending on the magnitude of the trajectory deviation from the to-be-grasped glass. Results show that electro-cortical indices of error detection (indexed by ERN and mid-frontal theta oscillations), but not those of error awareness (indexed by error-Positivity), were gradually modulated by the magnitude of the observed errors. Moreover, the phase connectivity analysis revealed that enhancement of mid-frontal theta phase synchronization paralleled the magnitude of the observed error. Thus, theta oscillations represent an electro-cortical index of the degree of control exerted by mid-frontal regions whose activation depends on how much an observed action outcome results maladaptive for the onlooker. Our study provides novel neurophysiological evidence that the error monitoring system maps observed errors of different magnitude according to fine-grain, graded rather than all-or-none rules.

Electrocortical signatures of detecting errors in the actions of others: An EEG study in pianists, non-pianist musicians and musically naïve people.

Detecting others' action errors plays a critical role in social life. Studies indicate that executing action errors and observing other's errors activate a specific cerebral system specialized for performance monitoring and detecting mismatches between an internal model of the action and the executed/observed one. Such a system may be particularly important for highly skilled performance. By recording electro-encephalographic (EEG) activity in expert pianists, non-pianist musicians and musically naïve individuals while they observed correct or incorrect mute piano sequences, we explored the link between sensorimotor expertise, the ability to detect another's erroneous action (indexed by positivity error, Pe) and action simulation (indexed by mu frequency suppression). Superior error detection in pianists was paralleled by a larger Pe, hinting at the selective activation of the parietal error-monitoring system in visuo-motor experts. Moreover, only in pianists did action observation induce left lateralized mu suppression in the 10-12 Hz band, reflecting somatotopic sensorimotor simulation. A mediation analysis showed that mu suppression and performance (indexed by d') were mediated by Pe amplitude, indicating that the higher the simulation, the higher the sensitivity to errors for large Pe amplitude. This study shows that specific electrocortical indices link motor simulation and detection of errors in the actions of others.

Mere observation of body discontinuity affects perceived ownership and vicarious agency over a virtual hand.

The mental representation of one's body typically implies the continuity of its parts. Here, we used immersive virtual reality to explore whether mere observation of visual discontinuity between the hand and limb of an avatar could influence a person's sense of ownership of the virtual body (feeling of ownership, FO) and being the agent of its actions (vicarious agency, VA). In experiment 1, we tested whether placing different amounts of visual discontinuity between a virtual hand and limb differently modulate the perceived FO and VA. Participants passively observed from a first-person perspective four different versions of a virtual limb: (1) a full limb; a hand detached from the proximal part of the limb because of deletion of (2) the wrist; (3) the wrist and forearm; (4) and the wrist, forearm and elbow. After observing the static or moving virtual limb, participants reported their feeling of ownership (FO) and vicarious agency (VA) over the hand. We found that even a small visual discontinuity between the virtual hand and arm significantly decreased participants' FO over the hand during observation of the static limb. Moreover, in the same condition, we found that passive observation of the avatar's actions induced a decrease in both FO and VA. We replicated the same results in a second study (experiment 2) where we investigated the modulation of FO and VA by comparing the visual body discontinuity with a condition in which the virtual limb was partially occluded. Our data show that mere observation of limb discontinuity can change a person's ownership and agency over a virtual body observed from a first-person perspective, even in the absence of any multisensory stimulation of the real body. These results shed new light on the role of body visual continuity in modulating self-awareness and agency in immersive virtual reality.

ERP and fMRI correlates of endogenous and exogenous focusing of visual-spatial attention.

The aim of this study was to investigate the neural correlates of the functional distinction underlying attentional mechanisms of endogenous-sustained and exogenous-transient spatial selection. We recorded event related potentials (ERPs) and used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in separate experiments while subjects performed a simple reaction time (RT) to the same visual stimulus displayed to one of several field locations. Endogenous-sustained or exogenous-transient focusing of attention onto target location were obtained by presenting the stimulus in blocks of same-point vs. randomised-point trials, respectively. Same-point stimuli yielded overall faster RT than randomised stimuli, indicating a facilitating effect of endogenous-sustained spatial attention on the perceptual processing of the impending stimulus. Moreover, same-point vs. randomised presentations revealed significant increases in the fMRI signal in the bilateral lingual and fusiform gyri as well as in the right calcarine sulcus, in conjunction with a larger amplitude of the posterior P1 component of ERPs, but no modulation of the amplitude of the N1 component. Rather, a larger amplitude of N1 was found in the reverse contrast, randomised minus same-point trials, which revealed increases in the fMRI signal along the posterior left superior frontal sulcus and bilaterally in the superior precuneus. These findings indicate that N1 indexes exogenous orienting of attention and is likely to represent the activity of frontal and parietal components of the attention network involved in eliciting attention changes. In contrast, the effects of those changes, resulting in a modulation of activation in visual occipital areas, are indexed by P1.