Reciprocal association between social support and psychological distress in chronic physical health conditions: A random intercept cross-lagged panel model.

The onset of a chronic physical health condition (CHC) can highly impact individuals' well-being and mental health. Social support has been shown to help people rebound after the onset of a CHC. Nonetheless, little is known about the longitudinal pattern of social support and its reciprocal association with mental health in CHC. This study aimed to illustrate the longitudinal pattern of perceived social support and to examine the reciprocal association between perceived social support and psychological distress across 6 years. Two random intercept cross-lagged panel models were conducted, one for emotional and one for practical support, using yearly assessments of 582 Swiss Household Panel's participants reporting a CHC. A reciprocal association was found, with psychological distress 1 year after the onset being linked to less emotional support in the following year and vice versa, more emotional support being linked to less psychological distress the following year. A unidirectional association was found for practical support, with more psychological distress 1 year before the CHC onset being linked to more practical support at the onset year. This study underlines the importance of involving the social environment of individuals living with a CHC, especially around the first year after the onset.

Longitudinal changes in psychological adaptation outcomes during spinal cord injury inpatient rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVES: To determine average changes and individuals' patterns of change in depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, general distress, and life satisfaction between admission to spinal cord injury inpatient rehabilitation and discharge; and to identify factors associated with change. METHOD: Longitudinal data collection as part of a national cohort study (N = 281). Changes in the psychological adaptation outcomes were analyzed using latent change score models. Reliable change indexes were calculated for each outcome to identify individuals' patterns of change. Biopsychosocial factors were examined as covariates of change. RESULTS: On average, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and general distress decreased between admission and discharge, while life satisfaction increased. According to the reliable change indexes, several adaptation patterns were identified. The proportion of individuals following each pattern varied depending on the analyzed outcome: resilience (absence of clinically relevant symptoms at admission and discharge) was the most common for symptoms of depression (61.57%) and anxiety (66.55%), whereas vulnerability (clinically relevant symptoms at both measurement times) was the most common for distress (57.32%). Improvement patterns (statistically significant decreases) were identified for 6.41%, 4.27%, and 7.83% of participants in depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and distress, respectively. For life satisfaction, improvement (statistically significant increases) was found for 8.54%. Male sex, tetraplegia, self-efficacy, optimism, and social support were associated with average changes in the psychological adaptation outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: On average, participants showed improvement in all analyzed outcomes. Still, there is substantial variability in change. Self-efficacy, social support, and optimism are potential intervention targets during inpatient rehabilitation to promote a favorable psychological adaptation process. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Adaptation during spinal cord injury rehabilitation: The role of appraisal and coping.

OBJECTIVE: To test the spinal cord injury adjustment model (SCIAM) by examining whether primary appraisals (threat or loss) and coping strategies (approach-oriented and denial) sequentially mediate the impact of functional independence, psychological resources, and social support on depressive and anxiety symptoms among individuals with spinal cord injury during inpatient rehabilitation. METHOD: Path analyses of longitudinal data from a Swiss inception cohort study (N = 207). Models were implemented separately for depressive and anxiety symptoms. RESULTS: The initial models based on the SCIAM yielded poor fit and were respecified. Different from the SCIAM's assumptions, psychological resources and threat appraisal showed direct effects on depressive symptoms (ß = -.28, SE = .07, p < .001 and ß = .33, SE = .07, p < .001, respectively), while social support and threat appraisal showed direct effects on anxiety symptoms (ß = -.23, SE = .06, p < .001 and ß = .42, SE = .06, p < .001, respectively). Primary appraisals and coping strategies partially mediated the effects of psychological resources on depressive symptoms and fully mediated their effect on anxiety symptoms. However, this did not only happen via the SCIAM's sequential double mediation, since indirect effects were also observed via threat appraisal only. The final models explained 40 and 30% of the variance of depressive and anxiety symptoms, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The findings only partially supported the SCIAM's sequential double mediation mechanism. Psychological resources, social support, and primary appraisals can have direct effects on psychological adaptation outcomes and may be suitable intervention targets during inpatient rehabilitation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The longitudinal impact of a chronic physical health condition on subjective well-being.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic health conditions (CHC) can have severe impacts on an individual's life, affecting well-being and mental health. Nonetheless, individuals can show different response patterns of psychological adaptation following a CHC onset. This study aimed to identify profiles of subjective well-being (SWB) at 1 year before (T - 1), 1 year after (T + 1), and 4 years after (T + 4) the onset of a physical CHC using seven indicators (health satisfaction, life satisfaction, energy, joy, worry, sadness, anger), examine transitions between the identified profiles, and determine predicting factors of these transitions. METHOD: Latent profile analysis and latent transition analysis was conducted using a sample of 357 participants reporting a physical CHC drawn from the Swiss Household Panel dataset. RESULTS: Three profiles were identified at T - 1: low, high, and very high SWB. At T + 1 and T + 4, a fourth vulnerable profile emerged. Transition analysis showed that, overall, the most probable transition was to stay in similar profiles across time. However, recovery toward higher SWB profiles and delayed reaction toward lower SWB profiles appeared between 1 and 4 years following the CHC onset. Factors predicting recovery patterns from low to high SWB are better health status, fewer negative life events, and financial scarcity, whereas lower emotional stability was related to a delayed reaction from high to low SWB. CONCLUSION: This study underlines the importance of personal factors in the adaptation following CHC onset. Routine assessment of personality traits would enable identifying individuals at greater risk of lower SWB following the onset of a CHC. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal course and predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms after spinal cord injury.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined longitudinal changes in post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in individuals newly diagnosed with spinal cord injury (SCI) and tested various psychosocial and injury-related characteristics as predictors for interindividual differences in symptom courses. DESIGN: Longitudinal data from the larger Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort Study were used. The sample consisted of 269 patients (70.6% male; Mage = 53.21) admitted for inpatient rehabilitation to SCI rehabilitation centers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: PTSS were measured at one and six months after injury using the Impact of Event Scale-6. RESULTS: Latent change score modelling revealed no average change in PTSS in the sample, but significant variability in the individual symptom courses. Reliable change index analyses suggest that among individuals with an initial PTSS severity of clinical concern (n = 65), only 27.7% showed clinically significant decreases over time. Predictors explained 34% of the variance in PTSS change. Loss appraisals (ß = .30, p < .001) and cause of injury (ß = .16, p = .018) emerged as unique predictors. CONCLUSION: Clinically elevated PTSS one month after SCI typically remain across the following months highlighting the need for early screening and intervention. Low loss appraisals were related to decreases in symptom severity and might therefore be a suitable intervention target for reducing PTSS after SCI.

Mental health, quality of life, self-efficacy, and social support of individuals living with spinal cord injury in Switzerland compared to that of the general population.

STUDY DESIGN: Comparative study of survey self-report data. OBJECTIVES: To compare individuals living with spinal cord injury (SCI) in Switzerland to the general population in terms of mental health, quality of life, self-efficacy, and social support. SETTING: Community, Switzerland. METHODS: Data from the 2017 community survey of the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort Study were compared to data from two matched (1:3 nearest neighbor propensity score) general population surveys collected in the same year. Measures of mental health (mental health index, psychological distress item, vitality scale, and energy item), quality of life (WHOQOL-BREF item), self-efficacy (General Self-Efficacy Scale item), and social support (items of relationship satisfaction, living alone, and marital status) were compared across datasets using regression adjusted for non-response correction weights. The analyses were then replicated in subgroups defined by sociodemographic, lesion-related, and secondary health issues factors. RESULTS: Individuals with SCI had significantly higher psychological distress and poorer mental health, vitality, energy, and quality of life than the general population, with medium to large effect sizes (Cohen's d: 0.35-1.08). They also had lower self-efficacy and relationship satisfaction, lived more frequently alone, and were more frequently single. Individuals with less severe secondary health issues reported mental health and quality of life more similar to the general population than those reporting more severe issues. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights a significant long-term impact of SCI on well-being and psychosocial resources, underlining the need for ongoing biopsychosocial care beyond inpatient rehabilitation.

Psychological distress trajectories in chronic physical health conditions.

OBJECTIVE: The onset of a chronic health condition (CHC) can have a severe impact on an individual's life, affecting mental and physical health. This study's goal was to investigate psychological distress trajectories starting from 1 year before to 4 years after the onset of a physical CHC. The specific aims were to identify the number and shape of longitudinal psychological distress trajectories and to test health-related, psychological, social, and demographic factors predicting these trajectories. METHOD: Two samples were drawn from the Swiss Household Panel data set: a CHC sample (n = 361) and a 1-to-1 matched comparison sample of healthy individuals. Latent growth mixture modeling was used to identify psychological distress trajectories over 6 years. Factors predicting trajectories were then tested using multinomial logistic regression. RESULTS: Four psychological distress trajectories were identified in the CHC sample: resilience (53.9%), chronic (22.2%), delayed (15.0%), and recovery (8.9%). In the comparison sample, two trajectories were identified: low psychological distress (90%) and elevated psychological distress (10%). Protective factors associated with resilient trajectory membership in the CHC sample were higher emotional stability, higher relationship satisfaction, and male gender. CONCLUSION: Individuals living with a CHC had an increased risk of vulnerability compared with a sample of healthy individuals. This advocates awareness of mental health issues following the onset of a CHC. In this regard, biopsychosocial factors (gender, emotional stability, and relationship satisfaction) offer prevention and intervention opportunities for more vulnerable individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Profiles of Psychological Adaptation Outcomes at Discharge From Spinal Cord Injury Inpatient Rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of a newly acquired spinal cord injury (SCI) by identifying profiles of psychological adaptation outcomes at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation, using several outcome measures in parallel and to examine biopsychosocial factors associated with profile membership. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of data from the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury inception cohort study. SETTING: Inpatient rehabilitation. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals 16 years old or older with recently diagnosed SCI who finished clinical rehabilitation in 1 of the 4 major national rehabilitation centers (N=370). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Life satisfaction, general distress, and symptoms of depression and anxiety were assessed using a single item from the International SCI Quality of Life Basic Data Set, the Distress Thermometer, and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale respectively. RESULTS: Using latent profile analysis, 4 profiles of psychological adaptation outcomes were identified displaying different levels of impact, ranging from Minimal to Severe. Regarding covariates associated with profile membership, higher optimism, purpose in life, and self-efficacy indicated a higher probability of having a Minimal impact profile. Additionally, males, individuals with better functional independence, and those with an absence of pain were more likely to show a Minimal impact profile. CONCLUSIONS: Among the participants, 70% showed Minimal or Low impact profiles. Our findings support that individuals can show positive responses across several outcome measures even at an early time after the injury onset (eg, at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation). Moreover, our results indicate that beyond functional independence, improvement, and pain management, a rehabilitation process that strengthens psychological resources might contribute to better adaptation outcomes.

Measuring posttraumatic growth and depreciation after spinal cord injury: A Rasch analysis.

PURPOSE: Individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) may experience both positive (posttraumatic growth, PTG) and negative (posttraumatic depreciation, PTD) psychological changes following the injury. PTG and PTD were assessed using the 10-item short form of the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI-SF) and 10 matched negatively worded items for PTD (selected from the PTGI-42) within the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort Study (SwiSCI). This item selection is henceforth called PTG/D-SF. The objective of this study was to test the metric properties of the PTG/D-SF to determine the best strategy to derive reliable sum scores and to test the validity of several different structural conceptualizations. METHOD: Using cross-sectional data (N = 278), a series of unidimensional and multidimensional Rasch analyses of the PTG/D-SF (N = 20) were performed. Rasch analyses were conducted separately for the items or by domains to investigate dimensionality, monotonicity, item and model fit, and local item dependency of the instrument. RESULTS: The separate PTG and PTD items or their domains can be summated to form a unidimensional scale. Aggregation into domains improved the score distribution and increased the scope of the instruments. The reliability of the sum score for PTG was good (Person Separation: 0.81); the one for PTD was admissible (Person Separation: 0.77). CONCLUSION: PTG and PTD should be understood as distinct constructs rather than two ends of a continuum. Findings support the use of a PTG total score and to some degree the PTD total score. Future work could adapt the PTD items to improve the performance of the scale. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Perceived posttraumatic growth and depreciation after spinal cord injury: Actual or illusory?

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether retrospective reports of posttraumatic growth (PTG) and depreciation (PTD) of individuals recently diagnosed with a spinal cord injury (SCI) coincide with prospectively measured changes in the conceptually close domains of general self-efficacy (SE) and purpose in life (PIL). The study also tested whether PTG/D and changes in SE and PIL independently predict psychological adjustment to the injury (depressive symptoms, anxiety, life satisfaction). METHOD: Adopting a longitudinal design, a sample of 206 newly injured patients admitted to one of the four Swiss SCI rehabilitation centers was analyzed. SE and PIL were assessed one month after injury diagnosis and at rehabilitation discharge, PTG/D and the adjustment indicators only at discharge. Structural equation modeling was used to calculate latent change scores for SE and PIL, to correlate these scores to PTG/D scores, and to regress the adjustment indicators on both of them. RESULTS: PTG/D scores were weakly (rmax = .20, p = .033) correlated to changes in SE and PIL. In the multivariate analyses, positive changes in SE and PIL and PTG scores were all associated with better adjustment (e.g., fewer depressive symptoms). In contrast, PTD scores were related to lower adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that PTG/D in the initial time after a potentially traumatic medical event seem to be illusory to some degree, as indicated by their weak association with "actual" (i.e., longitudinally measured) changes. Nevertheless, both, PTG/D and actual changes, need to be considered by researchers and clinicians, as they seem to be independently related to psychological adjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Representing and organizing information to describe the lived experience of health from a personal factors perspective in the light of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF): a discussion paper.

PURPOSE: To discuss the representation and organization of information describing persons' lived experience of health from a personal factors perspective in the light of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, using spinal cord injury as a case in point for disability. METHODS: The scientific literature was reviewed, discussion rounds conducted, and qualitative secondary analyses of data carried out using an iterative inductive-deductive approach. RESULTS: Conceptual considerations are explicated that distinguish the personal factors perspective from other components of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. A representation structure is developed that organizes health-related concepts describing the internal context of functioning. Concepts are organized as individual facts, subjective experiences, and recurrent patterns of experience and behavior specifying 7 areas and 211 concept groups. CONCLUSIONS: The article calls for further scientific debate on the perspective of personal factors in the light of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. A structure that organizes concepts in relation to a personal factors perspective can enhance the comprehensiveness, transparency and standardization of health information, and contribute to the empowerment of persons with disabilities. Implications for rehabilitation The present study collected data from scientific literature reviews, discussion rounds and qualitative secondary analyses in order to develop a representation and organization of information describing persons' lived experience of health from a personal factors perspective in the light of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. The following representation structure for health-related information from a personal factors perspective was developed: (i) Individuals facts (i.e., socio-demographical factors, position in the immediate social and physical context, personal history and biography), (ii) subjective experience (i.e., feelings, thoughts and beliefs, motives), and (iii) recurrent patterns of experience (i.e., feelings, thoughts and beliefs) and behavior. With this study, we aim to stimulate further scientific discussion about the personal factors component in the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, including its application and subsequent validation for potential implementation into clinical practice.

Rasch analysis of the University of Washington Self-Efficacy Scale short-form (UW-SES-6) in people with long-standing spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional psychometric study. OBJECTIVES: The University of Washington Self-Efficacy Scale (UW-SES) is a measure of self-efficacy regarding managing challenges related to multiple sclerosis or spinal cord injury (SCI) that can be used across disabling conditions. The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of its short form, the UW-SES-6, using the Rasch model. SETTING: Community, The Netherlands. METHODS: Secondary analysis of data from the ALLRISC study. Participants were 261 individuals with a time since onset of SCI (TSI) for at least 10 years, 18-35 at the onset of SCI, and used a wheelchair in everyday life. Rasch analyses were conducted to examine stochastic ordering (fit), unidimensionality, local dependency, reliability, response scale structure, targeting, and item bias. RESULTS: Median age was 47.8 years (Inter-Quartile Range (IQR) 41.9-55), median TSI was 22 years (IQR 16.8-30.3), 73.6% were male, 90.4% had a traumatic SCI, 39.8% had tetraplegia, and 81.6% had motor complete SCI. After merging the middle three response categories of item 4, the UW-SES-6 showed satisfactory item fit without local dependence. The PSI was high (0.87). Comparison of the person and item threshold distributions showed satisfactory targeting of the UW-SES-6 to the study group. No differential item functioning was seen with respect to sex, age, level of education, level and completeness of lesion, and TSI. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed the UW-SES-6 to be a scale with sound psychometric properties that can be used as a quick and easy self-report measure of self-efficacy in people with SCI.

Coping and posttraumatic growth: A longitudinal comparison of two alternative views.

PURPOSE: In the current study, we aimed to examine two possible explanations for why higher levels of posttraumatic growth (PTG) were repeatedly found to be predicted by both approach- and avoidance-oriented coping, focusing on individuals recently diagnosed with a spinal cord injury (SCI). First, negative changes (posttraumatic depreciation, PTD) may moderate the association between PTG and the two types of coping, indicating that PTG reflects avoidance of PTD for some individuals, but a constructive view on posttraumatic life changes for others. Second, it may be that a flexible use of different types of coping strategies (coping flexibility) enables the experience of PTG. METHOD: We examined a sample of 122 patients admitted to one of the four Swiss SCI rehabilitation centers in a longitudinal study. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the two competing explanations. RESULTS: Both approach- (ß = .30, p = .001) and avoidance-oriented coping (ß = .23, p = .011) measured 3 months after SCI diagnosis predicted higher PTG levels at discharge from clinical rehabilitation. PTD did not moderate the relationship between approach- (ß = .03, p = .743) and avoidance-oriented coping (ß = -.04, p = .656) and PTG. However, coping flexibility (ß = .23, p = .012) predicted higher PTG levels. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that a flexible use of different coping strategies (potentially, according to situational demands) may explain findings that PTG was predicted by both approach- and avoidance-oriented coping. (PsycINFO Database Record

Self-Efficacy and Pressure Ulcer Prevention After Spinal Cord Injury-Results From a Nationwide Community Survey in Switzerland (SwiSCI).

BACKGROUND: Pressure ulcers (PUs) are a common and severe health condition in persons with spinal cord injury (SCI). Skin-care strategies for PU prevention are usually provided during initial rehabilitation. However, individuals with SCI often do not perform these strategies continuously, especially after discharge. The influence of psychological factors such as general self-efficacy (GSE) on the performance of PU prevention behavior has not yet been sufficiently explored. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether persons with greater levels of GSE are more likely to perform skin-care strategies for PU prevention regularly. DESIGN: Nationwide cross-sectional survey within the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort Study. SETTING: Community setting, data collection between 2011 and 2013. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 456 subjects with a traumatic or nontraumatic SCI living in Switzerland. METHODS: Associations between GSE and PU prevention behavior were analyzed by multivariate proportional odds regression models, including potential sociodemographic, lesion-related, and lifestyle-related confounders without and with interaction terms between GSE and potential effect modifiers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Self-efficacy was assessed by the GSE scale comprising 10 items. PU preventive behavior was operationalized using 5 items of an adapted version of the Spinal Cord Injury Lifestyle scale. Both measurements were components of a self-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Based on the regression model without interaction terms, GSE levels were not associated with skin-care PU prevention. After we included interaction terms, the final model showed statistically significant associations between GSE and 3 skin-care items with odds ratios ranging from 1.09 to 1.17 (all P < .001). The slightly positive effect of GSE on PU prevention behavior was restricted to persons who sustained their SCI at a younger age. CONCLUSIONS: GSE was generally not associated with skin-care PU prevention behavior among persons with SCI in this study. In further research, it might be of interest to assess SCI-specific concepts of self-efficacy. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Posttraumatic growth and adjustment to spinal cord injury: Moderated by posttraumatic depreciation?

OBJECTIVE: Findings on the relationship of posttraumatic growth (PTG) with adjustment to potentially traumatic events are inconsistent, whereupon posttraumatic depreciation (PTD) has been suggested as a possible moderator. The objective of this study is to investigate the associations between PTG and PTD on one side and life satisfaction and indicators of mental and physical health on the other side in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). The primary study aim is to test whether PTD moderates the relationships of PTG and different adjustment indicators. METHOD: A total of 141 patients administered to one of the four Swiss SCI rehabilitation centers completed questionnaires assessing PTG and PTD and different indicators of mental and physical health as well as life satisfaction at discharge from first rehabilitation. Correlational and regression methods were used to examine the research question. RESULTS: PTG and PTD were significantly positively correlated (rs = .47). PTD was significantly associated with lower mental and physical health and lower life satisfaction, with small to large effect sizes. PTD moderated the associations of PTG with symptoms of depression and life satisfaction (ß of interaction term = -.18 and .24, respectively). PTG was significantly related to lower levels of symptoms of depression and higher life satisfaction in individuals experiencing moderate to high levels of PTD. In contrast, PTG was not significantly related to these outcomes in individuals with low PTD levels. CONCLUSION: The neglect of PTD in research partially explains mixed findings on the relationship of PTG and adjustment to potentially traumatic events. (PsycINFO Database Record

Rasch analysis of measurement instruments capturing psychological personal factors in persons with spinal cord injury.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the metric properties of distinct measures of psychological personal factors comprising feelings, beliefs, motives, and patterns of experience and behaviour assessed in the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort Study (SwiSCI), using Rasch methodology. METHODS: SwiSCI Pathway 2 is a community-based, nationwide, cross-sectional survey for persons with spinal cord injury (SCI) (n = 511). The Rasch partial credit model was used for each subscale of the Positive Affect Negative Affect Scale (PANAS), Appraisal of Life Events Scale (ALE), Purpose in Life test - Short Form (PIL-SF), and the Big Five Inventory-K (BFI-K). RESULTS: The measures were unidimensional, with the exception of the positive affect items of the PANAS, where pairwise t-tests resulted in 10% significant cases, indicating multidimensionality. The BFI-K subscale agreeableness revealed low reliability (0.53). Other reliability estimates ranged between 0.61 and 0.89. Ceiling and floor effects were found for most measures. SCI-related differential item functioning (DIF) was rarely found. Language DIF was identified for several items of the BFI-K, PANAS and the ALE, but not for the PIL-SF. CONCLUSION: A majority of the measures satisfy the assumptions of the Rasch model, including unidimensionality. Invariance across language versions still represents a major challenge.

Describing functioning and health after spinal cord injury in the light of psychological-personal factors.

OBJECTIVE: To describe and explore functioning and health of persons with spinal cord injury from the perspective of psychological-personal factors in the light of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) framework. METHODS: Data from 511 participants regarding feelings, thoughts and beliefs, motives, and patterns of experience and behaviour were analysed. Measurement instruments included the Mental Health Index-5, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, Appraisal of Life Events Scale, 5 items from the World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale, Purpose in Life Test-Short Form, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Big Five Inventory-21, Social Skills Inventory-SF, Brief COPE. The distribution of the selected psychological-personal factors-indicators was examined using descriptive statistics. Differences between SCI subgroups by sex, age, age at injury, time since injury, aetiology and severity of injury were explored using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and F-tests. RESULTS: Participants who were older and sustained their spinal cord injury more recently experienced more depressed mood, less positive affect, less challenge appraisal, lower life satisfaction, lower purpose in life, and lower self-efficacy. They reported lower social skills, less usage of the coping strategies humour, positive reframing, and acceptance, and more usage of the coping strategies denial and self-distraction. Overall, effect sizes were small. DISCUSSION: Although study participants appeared to be well adjusted to spinal cord injury, those who sustained their injury at an older age and more recently reported more negative experiences. Quantitative description and exploration of the psychological-personal aspects of health will enable hypotheses to be formulated for further research, and suggest a need for tailored interventions for those at risk of less favourable outcomes.

Psychological factors and mental health in persons with spinal cord injury: An exploration of change or stability.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the course of mental health and psychological factors over time in persons with a recent spinal cord injury and to determine whether change in psychological factors is associated with change in mental health. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study in the Netherlands with 3 measurement time-points. SUBJECTS: A total of 60 persons with recently acquired spinal cord injury. METHODS: Standardized validated measurement instruments were used to assess mental health, self-efficacy, mastery, optimism, illness cognitions, purpose in life, and social comparison. Descriptive statistics and multilevel analysis were used. RESULTS: Multilevel regression analyses showed that neither mental health nor psychological factors, except for social comparison-upward identification, showed statistically significant change over time. However, increasing scores for self-efficacy, mastery, acceptance cognitions, and purpose in life were significantly associated with increasing mental health. In contrast, increasing scores for optimism, social comparison, helplessness cognitions, and disease benefits cognitions were not significantly associated with increasing mental health in persons with spinal cord injury. CONCLUSION: Most psychological factors showed stability up to 6 months post-discharge. Purpose in life, acceptance cognitions, self-efficacy, and mastery showed more variability and seem to be most promising as targets for interventions, which may lead to an improvement in mental health in persons with spinal cord injury.

Depression in spinal cord injury: assessing the role of psychological resources.

PURPOSE: To test the spinal cord injury adjustment model (SCIAM) and to examine how psychological resources may influence depressive symptoms in persons with spinal cord injury (SCI). We expect that (a) higher general self-efficacy (GSE) and higher purpose in life (PIL) are associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms, and that (b) the effect of GSE and PIL on depressive symptoms is mediated by appraisals and coping strategies, as proposed by the SCIAM. METHOD: A nationwide cross-sectional survey (the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort Study) was conducted with individuals with SCI living in the Swiss community (N = 516). Structural equation modeling was used to test relationships between variables as specified in the SCIAM. RESULTS: Higher GSE (r = -.54) and PIL (r = -.62) were significantly associated with lower depressive symptoms. The initial model yielded poor model fit. However, the final modified model fitted well, with χ2(21) = 54.00, p < .01, RMSEA = .055 (90% CI [.038, .073]), CFI = .98, explaining 62.9% of the variance of depressive symptoms. PIL had a direct large effect and an indirect effect on depressive symptoms via appraisals and coping strategies. The influence of GSE on depressive symptoms was fully mediated by appraisals and coping strategies. CONCLUSIONS: Psychological resources of individuals with SCI can have a direct effect on depressive symptoms. The mediated pathways are present, but not exclusive in our data, yielding only partial support for the mechanism proposed by the SCIAM.

Social skills: a resource for more social support, lower depression levels, higher quality of life, and participation in individuals with spinal cord injury?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relevance of social skills and their different dimensions (ie, expressivity, sensitivity, control) in relation to social support, depression, participation, and quality of life (QOL) in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI). DESIGN: Cross-sectional data collection within the Swiss Spinal Cord Injury Cohort. SETTING: Community-based. PARTICIPANTS: Individuals with SCI (N=503). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Depression, participation, and QOL were measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale, the Utrecht Scale for Evaluation of Rehabilitation-Participation, and 5 selected items of the World Health Organization Quality of Life Scale. The Social Skills Inventory and the Social Support Questionnaire were used to assess social skills (expressivity, sensitivity, control) and social support, respectively. RESULTS: Structural equation modeling was conducted. In model 1 (χ(2)=27.81; df=19; P=.087; root mean square error of approximation=.033; 90% confidence interval=.000-.052), social skills as a latent variable was related to social support (ß=.31; R(2)=.10), depression (ß=-.31; total R(2)=.42), and QOL (ß=.46; R(2)=.25). Social support partially mediated the effect of social skills on QOL (indirect effect: ß=.04; P=.02) but not on depression or participation. In model 2 (χ(2)=27.96; df=19; P=.084; root mean square error of approximation=.031; 90% confidence interval=.000-.053), the social skills dimension expressivity showed a path coefficient of ß=.20 to social support and ß=.18 to QOL. Sensitivity showed a negative path coefficient to QOL (ß=-.15) and control a path coefficient of ß=-.15 to depression and ß=.24 to QOL. CONCLUSIONS: Social skills are a resource related to more social support, lower depression scores, and higher QOL.