Faecal cortisol metabolites, body temperature, and behaviour of beef cattle exposed to a heat load.

Feedlot cattle are at times exposed to high environmental temperatures. Faecal cortisol metabolites were related to possible indicators of heat stress that could be measured under field conditions: respiratory dynamics (respiration rate), body surface temperature and adaptive behaviours, such as water consumption, posture (standing, lying), and activity (eating, drinking and rumination). Twelve (12) yearling Black Angus steers were divided into two treatment groups: a hot treatment (HOT; n = 6) and a thermoneutral-treatment (TN; n = 6) and individually housed in a climate-controlled facility at The University of Queensland, Australia. In the TN treatment, all animals were exposed to an ambient temperature of 20.34 ± 0.25 °C, relative humidity 71.51 ± 3.26% and Temperature humidity index (THI) 66.91 ± 0.33 throughout. In the HOT treatment group, environmental conditions were exposed to different climatic phases from thermoneutral to hot conditions, where they remained for 7 d, and then returned to TN conditions in the recovery period. The dry bulb ambient temperature (TA) and relative humidity (RH) in the pens of cattle in the HOT treatment were increased from 28 °C (daily maximum ambient temperature) and 45% RH at 0700 h to a daily maximum TA and RH of 35 °C (daily maximum ambient temperature) and 50% (THI 77) at 1100 h, which was maintained until 1600 h, after which it declined until it reached the baseline at 2000 h. In both treatments, there was a significant decrease in faecal cortisol metabolite concentration from the start to the end of the experiments they adapted to the experimental facility. The concentration of faecal cortisol metabolites was greater in the HOT treatment, compared to the TN treatment during the heat exposure period, but there was no difference in the transition or recovery periods. Respiration rate was greater in the HOT treatment during heat exposure, and it increased with ambient dry bulb temperature above 26 °C, the latter being the upper critical temperature. Although positive correlations were detected between faecal cortisol metabolites and body surface temperature measurements, particularly the shoulder and rump, as well as standing time, panting score and drinking, a stepwise regression found that faecal cortisol metabolites were only significantly correlated with one variable, respiration rate. It is concluded that respiration rate is the best indicator of the stress induced by hot conditions for cattle.

Climatic influences on the mortality of sheep during long-distance sea transport.

Research on the causes of sheep death in sea voyages from Australia to the Middle East is limited, in particular little is known about the influence of climatic factors. Mortality data from 417 shipments of sheep exported over an 11-year period (November 2004 to June 2015) were modelled retrospectively to determine associated climatic factors. The statistical analysis were performed for both the full data set with 417 voyages based on actual and estimated departure and arrival dates and a restricted data set with 71 voyages based on actual dates. The results of the full data set demonstrated a seasonal mortality pattern, with more deaths occurring on sea voyages leaving Australia in the southern hemisphere winter or spring than those departing in Australian summer or autumn. Heat stress and inadequate fat mobilisation for energy supply when sheep are inappetant on shipments may explain this seasonality. Based on these two models, the voyage and weather factors associated with sheep mortalities included departure year, autumn departure in the southern hemisphere, voyage duration, single or multiple loading port(s), weekly mean dry bulb temperature and wind speed at departure ports, and humidity at destination ports. Significant correlations were observed between weather variables at the departure ports in the Australian winter and a high sheep mortality rate during voyages. This, together with the anticipated increased heat stress risk as a result of climate change, suggests that there could be review of the trade from Australia in the southern hemisphere winter. The influence of weather at the departure ports should be considered in sheep mortality prediction models, especially Australia's heat stress risk assessment model.

Behavioral and endocrine responses to season and social dynamics of captive male southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons).

Although southern hairy-nosed wombats (SHN wombats; Lasiorhinus latifrons) rarely breed in captivity, further knowledge of their reproductive physiology and behavior is likely to improve their breeding potential. This study examined the effect of seasonal variation and changes in social dynamics on the physiology and behavior of a captive population of male SHN wombats (n = 6). Seasonal changes in urinary testosterone metabolites (UTM), urinary cortisol metabolites (UCM), qualitative estimates of spermatorrhoea (QS), aggressive behavior and reproductive behavior were measured over an 11-month period. While there was no effect of month on QS (GLM ANOVA, P = 0.27), reproductive behavior (GLM ANOVA, P = 0.19) or aggressive behavior (Tukey pairwise comparisons), the secretion of UTM (GLM ANOVA, P = 0.051) was only marginally affected by season, compared to that reported for wild male SHN wombats. Mean UCM concentrations of July and August 2016 were significantly higher than those between October 2015 and January 2016 (Tukey pairwise comparisons). To examine social dynamics, two trials of animal positioning exchange with the enclosure system were implemented and behavioral data were examined for each trial over a six week period; UTM, UCM and general behaviors (n = 27) were measured for each trial. Neither UTM nor UCM concentration varied significantly (P ≥ 0.45) before and after the exchanges. "Scratching" decreased at the group level following the animal exchange in both trials, suggesting reduction in self-grooming may be a behavioral response to novel stimuli. UCM and UTM concentrations were both positively correlated with "standing still" and "body rub" behaviors. This may be evidence of a hormonal control of a "freezing behavioral response" to external stimuli and marking behavior, respectively. As there was no evidence that changing the social dynamics affected reproductive or agonistic behavior or hormone concentrations, it was concluded that captive male wombats in this study showed reduced reproductive seasonality compared to wild wombats and that animal exchange resulted in a behavioral response to novel stimuli but was not sufficient to affect testosterone or cortisol secretion, within the context of our study.

Physiological and behavioral responses of sheep to simulated sea transport motions.

The motion of ships can cause discomfort and stress in humans, but little is known about the impact on sheep welfare, despite many sheep traveling long distances by ship during live export. We tested whether exposing sheep to roll (side to side movement), heave (up and down movement), and pitch (front to back movement) with similar amplitude and period conditions to a commercial livestock transport vessel would affect their behavior and physiology. Specifically, we tested the effects of these motions and a control treatment on behavior, heart rate variability, rumination, body posture, and balance of sheep. Four sheep (37 ± 0.1 kg) were restrained in pairs in a crate, which was placed on a moveable and programmable platform that generated roll and pitch motions. An electric forklift was used to produce heave motion. The treatments were applied for 30 min each time in a changeover design with 1 repetition over 8 consecutive days. Sheep behavior was recorded continuously from video records, and heart rate monitors were attached to determine heart rate and its variability. Heave reduced the time that sheep spent ruminating, compared with the other 3 treatments ( < 0.001). The 2 sheep spent more time during heave with their heads 1 above the head of the other ( < 0.001) and looking toward their companion ( = 0.02), indicating greater affiliative behavior. Sheep spent more time during heave standing with their back supported on the crate ( = 0.006) and less time lying down ( = 0.01). Roll caused more stepping motions than pitch and control, indicating loss of balance ( < 0.001). Sheep experiencing heave and roll had increased heart rates and reduced interbeat intervals (IBI) compared to the control ( < 0.001). The IBI of sheep in the heave treatment had an increased ratio of low to high frequency duration ( = 0.01), indicating reduced parasympathetic control of stress responses. Therefore, there was both behavioral and physiological evidence that heave and roll caused stress, with sheep experiencing roll apparently coping better by regular posture changes and heave causing the sheep to seek the close presence of their companion.

Lateralization of behavior in dairy cows in response to conspecifics and novel persons.

The right brain hemisphere, connected to the left eye, coordinates fight and flight behaviors in a wide variety of vertebrate species. We investigated whether left eye vision predominates in dairy cows' interactions with other cows and humans, and whether dominance status affects the extent of visual lateralization. Although we found no overall lateralization of eye use to view other cows during interactions, cows that were submissive in an interaction were more likely to use their left eye to view a dominant animal. Both subordinate and older cows were more likely to use their left eye to view other cattle during interactions. Cows that predominantly used their left eye during aggressive interactions were more likely to use their left eye to view a person in unfamiliar clothing in the middle of a track by passing them on the right side. However, a person in familiar clothing was viewed predominantly with the right eye when they passed mainly on the left side. Cows predominantly using their left eyes in cow-to-cow interactions showed more overt responses to restraint in a crush compared with cows who predominantly used their right eyes during interactions (crush scores: left eye users 7.9, right eye users 6.4, standard error of the difference=0.72). Thus, interactions between 2 cows and between cows and people were visually lateralized, with losing and subordinate cows being more likely to use their left eyes to view winning and dominant cattle and unfamiliar humans.

The efficacy of pulsed ultrahigh current for the stunning of cattle prior to slaughter.

We present results from the development of a new system of reversible electrical stunning of cattle. A single-pulse ultra-high current (SPUC) was generated from a capacitance discharge current spike of at least 5000 V at 70 A, for approximately 50 ms. Ninety-seven cattle were stunned in three experimental protocols. With improvements made to the design of the stun box and charge delivered, 38 cattle were either stunned and immediately jugulated or monitored for signs of reappearance of brain stem reflexes at which point a concussion stun was administered. This use of the SPUC charge, provided as a biphasic-pulse waveform, resulted in a high level of stunning efficacy, with unconsciousness lasting for up to 4 min. These results were supported by EEG data taken from a subsequent cohort of stunned cattle. The SPUC stun also apparently eliminated post-stun grand mal seizures that can occur following short-acting conventional electrical stun, with its associated negative consequences on operator safety and meat quality.

Microclimatic conditions and their effects on sheep behavior during a live export shipment from Australia to the Middle East.

The microclimate can potentially impact the health and welfare of livestock exported by ship. Within-pen microclimatic conditions were recorded and the effects of ammonia on sheep behavior investigated on a voyage from Australia to the Middle East. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide as well as wet-bulb, dry-bulb, and dew-point temperature and air speed were mapped in 20 open-deck focal pens, with the focus on the behavior and location of a marked sheep in each pen. Air speed was highly variable in most pens, with pockets of high but transient concentrations of ammonia (30.7 to 44.2 mg/m(3)) in 20% of pens that had no or minimal air flow. Carbon dioxide concentrations varied in some pens, but overall concentrations of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide were low. Sheep in pens previously identified to have high ammonia concentrations, high wet-bulb temperatures, and low wind speed stood longer (P = 0.003) and spent less time feeding (P = 0.01) and ruminating (P = 0.004) than those in pens previously identified with low ammonia, low wet-bulb temperature, and high wind speed. Moreover, sheep exposed to increased ammonia concentrations held their head higher (P = 0.004) to avoid the greater ammonia concentrations at lower heights, and these sheep had more conjunctivitis (P < 0.001). Sheep movement around the pen was limited. Increased time spent lying down (P = 0.04) and more rhythmical behavior in the second half of the voyage indicated that the sheep adjusted to shipboard conditions over time. It is concluded that high, transient concentrations of ammonia existed in some pens, which adversely affected the behavior of sheep.

Auditory laterality in a nocturnal, fossorial marsupial (Lasiorhinus latifrons) in response to bilateral stimuli.

Behavioural lateralisation is evident across most animal taxa, although few marsupial and no fossorial species have been studied. Twelve wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons) were bilaterally presented with eight sounds from different contexts (threat, neutral, food) to test for auditory laterality. Head turns were recorded prior to and immediately following sound presentation. Behaviour was recorded for 150 seconds after presentation. Although sound differentiation was evident by the amount of exploration, vigilance, and grooming performed after different sound types, this did not result in different patterns of head turn direction. Similarly, left-right proportions of head turns, walking events, and food approaches in the post-sound period were comparable across sound types. A comparison of head turns performed before and after sound showed a significant change in turn direction (χ(2) (1)=10.65, p=.001) from a left preference during the pre-sound period (mean 58% left head turns, CI 49-66%) to a right preference in the post-sound (mean 43% left head turns, CI 40-45%). This provides evidence of a right auditory bias in response to the presentation of the sound. This study therefore demonstrates that laterality is evident in southern hairy-nosed wombats in response to a sound stimulus, although side biases were not altered by sounds of varying context.

Intimate partner violence and companion animal welfare.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of intimate partner violence (IPV) on companion animal welfare. DESIGN: Self-selected telephone survey of people meeting the criteria. METHODS: Members of the Australian public with experience of IPV and concurrent companion animal ownership were invited to telephone a researcher for a semi-structured interview. RESULTS: In total, 26 Australian women reported one or more companion animals in the household being verbally and/or physically abused by their male partner, usually with prolonged effects on animal behaviour; 92% indicated that they had been unwilling to discuss the animal abuse with a veterinarian. Many were unaware of animal accommodation services for people fleeing violence and those who did know about these were unwilling to use them, citing their bond with the animals as the main reason. Animals targeted for abuse were most likely to be dogs and owned by women rather than men, children or both partners. CONCLUSION: Animals can be severely affected by domestic violence situations and many people experiencing violence are unwilling to confide in veterinarians or seek help from animal shelters.

Physiological and behavioral responses of sheep to gaseous ammonia.

Ammonia can accumulate in highly stocked sheep accommodation, for example during live export shipments, and could affect sheep health and welfare. Thus, the objective of this experiment was to test the effects of 4 NH(3) concentrations, 4 (control), 12, 21, and 34 mg/m(3), on the physiology and behavior of wether sheep. Sheep were held for 12 d under a micro-climate and stocking density similar to shipboard conditions recorded on voyages from Australia to the Middle East during the northern hemispheric summer. Ammonia increased macrophage activity in transtracheal aspirations, indicating active pulmonary inflammation; however, it had no effect (P > 0.05) on hematological variables. Feed intake decreased (P = 0.002) in proportion to ammonia concentration, and BW gain decreased (P < 0.001) at the 2 greatest concentrations. Exposure to ammonia increased (P = 0.03) the frequency of sneezing, and at the greatest ammonia concentration, sheep were less active, with less locomotion, pawing, and panting. Twenty-eight days after exposure to NH(3), the pulmonary macrophage activity and BW of the sheep returned to that of sheep exposed to only 4 mg/m(3). It was concluded that NH(3) induced a temporary inflammatory response of the respiratory system and reduced BW gain, which together indicated a transitory adverse effect on the welfare of sheep.

Accumulation of ammonia and other potentially noxious gases on live export shipments from Australia to the Middle East.

Noxious gases on ships are irritant pollutants that have potential impacts on the comfort and health of both livestock and humans. Identification of environmental influences on the pollutants will assist live exporters to control them. Ammonia, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide, as well as wet and dry bulb temperature, dew point, air speed and depth of faeces that the sheep stood in, were measured on two ship voyages in which sheep were transported from Australia to the Middle East. Daily measurements were made at 20 measurement locations over 12 days. At four sites, the mean ammonia concentration for the voyage was above the recommended maximum limit for the live export industry (25 ppm). The mean ammonia concentrations at the remaining 16 sites were below 18 ppm and considered safe. High ammonia concentrations were localised and occurred particularly on closed decks, as well as at the front of the vessel and near the engine block on open decks. Ammonia concentration on the open decks was correlated with cumulative wind during the voyage, air speed, dew point, wet bulb temperature and faecal pad depth, and on the closed decks with dew point, and wet and dry bulb temperature. Hydrogen sulphide (<1.8 ppm) and carbon dioxide (<1900 ppm) concentrations were low and did not pose a risk to animal or human welfare or health. The results suggest that high ammonia concentrations occur in those parts of the ship where there is insufficient ventilation and/or high temperatures and humidity.

A survey of aged horses in Queensland, Australia. Part 2: Clinical signs and owners' perceptions of health and welfare.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence and risk factors for clinical signs of disease and owner-reported health or welfare issues of aged horses in Queensland, Australia. METHODS: Owners of horses were contacted via an equestrian organisation in Queensland and asked to complete a questionnaire about their horses aged 15 years and older, to gain information about clinical signs observed in the horse and disease history. Owners were asked to identify health or welfare issues they felt were important in aged horses. RESULTS: Owners were able to identify many clinical signs of disease, with 83% of horses having at least one reported clinical sign of disease. Muscle stiffness (33%), lameness (28%), ocular discharge (22%), change in hair coat (22%) and skin problems (21%) were the most commonly reported signs. Increasing age was a risk factor for the presence of clinical signs of disease. Ponies had an increased risk of both laminitis and hirsutism, whereas Thoroughbreds had an increased risk of stereotypies, wounds, weight loss and musculoskeletal signs. Owners reported a known disease or disorder in their horses less frequently than the clinical signs of disease. Owners reported weight loss (28%), arthritis/lameness (24%) and teeth/dental care (18%) as the most important health issues, followed by welfare issues (8%). CONCLUSION: Owners demonstrated concern for the health and welfare of their aged horses, but the lack of appropriate recognition of the significance of clinical signs and limited veterinary care suggest a need for increased client communication and veterinarian-client interaction.

A survey of aged horses in Queensland, Australia. Part 1: management and preventive health care.

OBJECTIVE: To describe management practices and routine preventive care of aged horses in Queensland, Australia, including effects of owner characteristics, affiliation to an equestrian group and retirement of the horse. METHODS: Owners of horses were contacted via Equestrian Australia (EA) and asked to complete a questionnaire about their aged horses (e.g. age, breed, sex and colour); their use and management, including preventive health care; and use of equine healthcare providers. RESULTS: Horses aged 15 years or greater represented one-third of the total horses owned in the population sample. The median age of the horses was 20.7 years (range 15-44 years). Basic husbandry and preventive health care varied depending on demographic region, age of the horse and its use. Affiliation with EA was associated with the breed and use of the horse, but not with management or preventive health care other than frequency of hoof care visits. Retired horses had reduced basic husbandry and preventive health care compared with non-retired horses. There was reduced preventive health care in rural compared with urban areas. The majority (61%) of horses in the current study had not been visited by a veterinarian in the previous 12 months. CONCLUSION: Aged horses constitute a large subgroup of the Australian horse population. Although basic management is at a high level for most aged horses, it appears to be reduced following the horse's retirement and in the more rural areas. There was limited veterinary involvement in preventive healthcare strategies for aged horses, especially in rural areas.

The physiological and behavioral responses of steers to gaseous ammonia in simulated long-distance transport by ship.

Ammonia can accumulate in high-density cattle accommodation during live export shipments and potentially threaten the health and welfare of the animals. The effects of 4 NH(3) concentrations, control (<6), 11, 23, and 34 mg/m(3), on the physiology and behavior of steers were recorded. The animals were held for 12 d under a microclimate and stocking density similar to shipboard conditions experienced on voyages from Australia to the Middle East during the northern hemispheric summer. In bronchoalveolar lavage samples, ammonia increased (P < 0.05) macrophage activity in proportion to NH(3) concentration and increased (P < 0.05) neutrophil percentage at 23 and 34 mg/m(3), indicating active pulmonary inflammation. Ammonia also increased (P < 0.05) lacrimation, nasal secretions, and coughing, particularly at 34 mg/m(3), indicating that the NH(3) was irritating the mucous membranes of the eyes, nasal cavity, and respiratory tract. Ammonia had no effect (P > 0.05) on hematological variables or BW. Twenty-eight days after exposure to NH(3), the pulmonary macrophage activity and neutrophil concentrations of the steers had returned to normal. It was concluded that ammonia concentrations of 23 and 34 mg/m(3) induced temporary inflammatory responses, which indicate an adverse effect on the welfare of steers.

An evaluation of a behaviour assessment to determine the suitability of shelter dogs for rehoming.

We evaluated a scheme for assessing shelter dog behaviour, which used 28 tests and rated responses from 0 (positive response) to 5 (fear, tonic immobility, or escape attempts). The assessment was evaluated for 236 dogs, and was repeated by a different assessor for 39 dogs approximately 80 days after rehoming to determine relevance of individual test components. A new owner survey evaluated satisfaction with the dog. A total of 130 of 236 dogs passed (score 80) failed. Scores were mainly unaffected by dog type and environmental variables, but decreased if dog faeces from a previous test was present in the arena during a test. Shelter tests only correlated with repeat tests if there was no direct contact with assessors. Adopters were satisfied with their dogs, despite reporting some behaviour problems. The shelter assessment was therefore robust against most outside influences but did not predict responses to people well.

Non-invasive methods of oestrus detection in captive southern hairy-nosed wombats (Lasiorhinus latifrons).

In order to develop a reliable method of oestrus detection in captive southern hairy-nosed (SHN) wombats, the reproductive behaviour of four groups of adult animals (1 male:2 female) was monitored using video surveillance and activity using movement-sensitive radio transmitters for a period of 12 months. During this time faecal samples were collected every 3 days and subsequently analysed for progesterone and oestradiol-17beta metabolites. In an attempt to induce and characterise oestrus-specific behaviour, each female was administered a subcutaneous injection of either 0.01 (n=2), 0.1 (n=4) or 0.2mg/kg (n=2) of oestradiol benzoate in one of two hormone trials. Remote video surveillance was an effective tool for detecting the reproductive behaviour of the captive SHN wombat. Courtship (n=426) and mating (n=46) was observed in five wombats and consisted of 13 distinctive behaviours in six consecutive phases: (1) investigation, (2) attraction, (3) chase, (4) restraint, (5) copulation and (6) recovery. Female sexual receptivity occurred at night and lasted for approximately only 13-h. Faecal progesterone metabolite analysis proved to be a reliable method for mapping oestrous cycle activity, but was not useful for the prediction of oestrus. Six out of the eight female wombats displayed periods of elevated progesterone secretion, corresponding to a mean (+/-SE) luteal phase of 20.9+/-1.1 days (n=23). Oestrous cycle length, defined as the interval between two successive luteal phases separated by a follicular phase was 31.8+/-1.1 days (n=12) and consisted of a follicular phase of 11.6+/-0.6 days (n=12). Changes in the secretion of faecal oestradiol-17beta metabolites provided little instructive information on oestrous cycle activity and were not associated with oestrus. Administration of oestradiol benzoate resulted in a spike of oestradiol-17beta metabolites in the faeces 3-4 days later, but was not dose dependent nor did it facilitate reproductive behaviour in either sex. Activity was not linked to key events in the oestrous cycle and appears not to be suitable as a method for detecting oestrus in the SHN wombat. We therefore recommend the use of 24-h video surveillance as the most reliable method for oestrus detection in captive SHN wombats.

Monitoring male southern hairy-nosed wombat (Lasiorhinus latifrons) reproductive function and seasonality in a captive population.

This study reports on the development and application of techniques used to assess the reproductive status of captive male southern hairy-nosed wombats (n=4) at Rockhampton Zoo. Initially, a GnRH agonist was used to establish a method for determining a reliable index of plasma and faecal testosterone secretion. Intra-muscular injection of buserelin (4 microg) resulted in an increase (P<0.05) in plasma and faecal testosterone concentration 90 min and 3 days after administration, respectively. Seasonal changes in faecal androgen, sperm production (spermatorrhoea) and testicular, prostatic and bulbourethral gland size were examined over a 18-month period, with prostate and bulbourethral gland cross-sectional areas being assessed by ultrasonography. Plasma testosterone secretion increased from early late winter and then decreased in spring (P<0.001); no seasonal variation (P=0.22) in faecal testosterone metabolite concentrations was apparent. Testicular volume showed no significant variation (P=0.29) over the sampling period. While there was no seasonal change (P=0.197, n=54) in prostate size, bulbourethral gland size increased in late-autumn, peaked in mid-winter and declined in early summer (P= or <0.001, n=55). Spermatozoa were found in the urine throughout the year. While, the captive population of SHN wombats at Rockhampton Zoo demonstrated significant changes in reproductive function, the extent of seasonality was less pronounced than that previously reported for wild populations in Southern Australia.

Risk factors for nuisance barking in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the key variables related to the environment, animal and owner that influence nuisance barking by dogs in a city with a subtropical climate. DESIGN AND POPULATION: A case-control survey of dog owners in Brisbane, Queensland, was conducted using a questionnaire investigating key variables connected to nuisance barking. Owners of dogs exhibiting nuisance barking were obtained from a list of dogs being treated in a Brisbane behaviour clinic, and those of control dogs were selected from a telephone directory. RESULTS: Univariate analysis showed that animal, owner and environmental factors all potentially influence the occurrence of nuisance barking. Multivariate analysis identified the following factors, with the relevant odds ratios (OR) as significant: age of the dog (young dog vs old dog, OR 11.2); multiple dogs in the household vs single (OR 5.6); origin of the dog (home bred vs obtained from breeder or friend, OR 4.0); type of dog, (herding vs other types, OR 3.2) and dog with access to the home vs dog without access (OR 2.5). CONCLUSION: The greatest risk for nuisance barking occurs with a young dog of the herding type that is home bred and with access to the house in a multiple dog household.

Requirements for the welfare of baboons and pigs used in animal-to-animal xenotransplantation experiments.

OBJECTIVE: Review the welfare requirements of pigs and baboons used for xenotransplantation in research laboratories. Because of the requirements to maintain optimum health status, these animals are often kept in barren enclosures with little or no enrichment. They may also be exposed to procedures causing stress and discomfort. Although animal-to-human xenotransplantation is, at the present time, not approved in Australia, research is currently being performed to develop laboratory procedures, using the pig-to-baboon model. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: We make recommendations for the husbandry of baboons and pigs used for xenotransplantation, to increase their welfare and minimise stress during experimental procedures, while attempting to preserve the health status required. It is proposed that novel standards should be devised and implemented for baboons, whereas existing pig welfare appraisal schemes could, with minor changes, be suitable for assessing the welfare of pigs used for xenotransplantation.