Plastic and paint debris in marine protected areas of Peru.

Contamination with anthropogenic debris, such as plastic and paint particles, has been widely investigated in the global marine environment. However, there is a lack of information regarding their presence in marine protected areas (MPAs). In the present study, the abundance, distribution, and chemical characteristics of microplastics (MPs; <5 mm), mesoplastics (MePs; 5-25 mm), and paint particles were investigated in multiple environmental compartments of two MPAs from Peru. The characteristics of MPs across surface water, bottom sediments, and fish guts were similar, primarily dominated by blue fibers. On the other hand, MePs and large MPs (1-5 mm) were similar across sandy beaches. Several particles were composite materials consisting of multiple layers confirmed as alkyd resins by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, which were typical indicators of marine coatings. The microstructure of paint particles showed differentiated topography across layers, as well as different elemental compositions. Some layers displayed amorphous structures with Ba-, Cr-, and Ti-based additives. However, the leaching and impact of potentially toxic additives in paint particles require further investigation. The accumulation of multiple types of plastic and paint debris in MPAs could pose a threat to conservation goals. The current study contributed to the knowledge regarding anthropogenic debris contamination in MPAs and further elucidated the physical and chemical properties of paint particles in marine environments. While paint particles may look similar to MPs and MePs, more attention should be given to these contaminants in places where intense maritime activity takes place.

Micro- and mesoplastic pollution along the coast of Peru.

Peru suffers from poor solid waste and coastal management, as well as evidenced plastic pollution in various forms. However, studies in Peru focusing on small plastic debris (i.e., meso- and microplastics) are still limited and inconclusive. Thus, the present study investigated the abundance, characteristics, seasonality, and distribution of small plastic debris along the coast of Peru. The abundance of small plastic debris is predominantly driven by specific locations, where a source of contamination is present, rather than presenting seasonal patterns. Meso- and microplastics were strongly correlated in both seasons (summer and winter), suggesting meso-plastic constantly breaking down as microplastic sources. Additionally, heavy metals (e.g., Cu, Pb) were found in low concentrations (mean concentrations < 0.4%) on the surface of some mesoplastics. Here, we provided a baseline on the multiple factors involving small plastic debris on the Peruvian coast and preliminarily identify associated contaminants.

Face masks invading protected areas: Risks and recommendations.

Among the indirect environmental impacts generated by the global COVID-19 pandemic, contamination with personal protective equipment (PPE), like face masks, may be one of the most relevant ones. PPE has been found in multiple aquatic, marine, and terrestrial environments, including places of absolute relevancy to biodiversity conservation, such as protected areas (PAs). Here, a brief report of the presence of PPE in six PAs of Peru is presented. PPE pollution in PAs consisted mainly of single-use and reusable face masks, as well as plastics associated with PAs, such as KN95 respirator wrappings. The mean PPE density was estimated as 1.32 × 10-3 PPE/m2. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed that face masks and wrappers mainly consisted of polypropylene and polyethylene, two of the most commonly available synthetic polymers. The material was poorly degraded according to their FTIR spectra, possibly suggesting that they were discarded recently. The recent ban on single-use plastic in Peruvian PAs is regarded as a great step forward toward the efforts made to preserve these invaluable places. However, these measures seemed insufficient to prevent PPE and other types of litter from contaminating areas of ecological importance. Considering the current scenario, several recommendations were proposed to be implemented in PAs in order to prevent PPE from becoming a new plastic issue to tackle. These recommendations are expected to also serve for future events where the use of single-use plastics becomes inevitable, like global pandemics.

First record of plastiglomerates, pyroplastics, and plasticrusts in South America.

Beaches in the Anthropocene carry the heavy burden of human-derived pollution, like that induced by plastic litter. For decades, plastic debris has been classified based on its source or physical size. In recent years, studies described and documented new forms of plastic formations, including plastiglomerates, plasticrusts, and pyroplastics. However, reports of these newly described formations are substantially lacking. Therefore, in the present study, we reported the first evidence of plasticrusts (plastic encrusting rock surfaces), plastiglomerates (organic/inorganic composite materials in a plastic matrix), and pyroplastics (burned and weathered plastics) in Peru. The plastic pollutants were recovered from the field through marine litter surveys on four beaches where illegal litter burning and campfires take place. All the suspected plastic formations were analyzed and confirmed using Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and one of each type was analyzed by X-Ray fluorescence (EDX) spectrometry. Plastiglomerates consisted of a high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene (PP) matrix with rock and sand inclusions. Pyroplastics were found in various stages of weathering and consisted of various polymers, including HDPE, PP, polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyamide (PA). Interestingly, our field observations suggest a new plasticrust formation pathway based on plastic burning and filling of rock crevices with molten plastic. The latter was identified as either PP or HDPE. Elements typically found in the sand and seawater (e.g., Na, Cl, Ca, Si, Fe) were identified on the surface of the plastic formations, as well as others that could potentially be associated with the leaching of additives (e.g., Ti, Br). Although the present study contributed to the knowledge concerning the occurrence of the new types of plastic formations, as well as possible formation pathways, there are still many questions to answer. Hence, we encourage future studies to focus on the toxicity that new plastic formations may induce in contrast with conventional plastics, the release of secondary contaminants (e.g., microplastics, additives), and their degradation in the environment. Lastly, standardized sampling and data treatment protocols are required.

Are we underestimating floating microplastic pollution? A quantitative analysis of two sampling methodologies.

Microplastics (MPs) are widespread in the water column of several aquatic ecosystems. Thus, the sampling methodology is considered as a basic factor influencing MPs abundance. In this baseline, a total of 67 investigations were chosen to conduct a quantitative analysis between two sampling methods: Trawl and bulk. The aim is to report a general overview of the MPs abundance and characteristic differences based on the sampling procedures and provide methodological recommendations. MPs abundance reported by bulk studies is 3500 higher than trawl studies. Furthermore, the morphological types and polymers abundances were statistically affected by the type of sampling tool. Conversely, MPs size ranges were significantly different between sampling procedures, suggesting that trawling underestimates the smaller MPs fractions. The analysis confirms that the sampling methods should be selected based on the research objectives. In this sense, it is recommended to combine both types of sampling procedures to obtain comprehensive data.

Degradation of plastics associated with the COVID-19 pandemic.

The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in an unprecedented form of plastic pollution: personal protective equipment (PPE). Numerous studies have reported the occurrence of PPE in the marine environment. However, their degradation in the environment and consequences are poorly understood. Studies have reported that face masks, the most abundant type of PPE, are significant sources of microplastics due to their fibrous microstructure. The fibrous material (mostly consisting of polypropylene) exhibits physical changes in the environment, leading to its fracture and detachment of microfibers. Most studies have evaluated PPE degradation under controlled laboratory conditions. However, in situ degradation experiments, including the colonization of PPE, are largely lacking. Although ecotoxicological studies are largely lacking, the first attempts to understand the impact of MPs released from face masks showed various types of impacts, such as fertility and reproduction deficiencies in both aquatic and terrestrial organisms.

Binational survey of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in coastal environments: Abundance, distribution, and analytical characterization.

In the present contribution, two nationwide surveys of personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution were conducted in Peru and Argentina aiming to provide valuable information regarding the abundance and distribution of PPE in coastal sites. Additionally, PPE items were recovered from the environment and analyzed by Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and X-ray diffraction (XRD), and compared to brand-new PPE in order to investigate the chemical and structural degradation of PPE in the environment. PPE density (PPE m-2) found in both countries were comparable to previous studies. FTIR analysis revealed multiple polymer types comprising common PPE, mainly polypropylene, polyamide, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyester. SEM micrographs showed clear weathering signs, such as cracks, cavities, and rough surfaces in face masks and gloves. EDX elemental mapping revealed the presence of elemental additives, such as Ca in gloves and face masks and AgNPs as an antimicrobial agent. Other metals found on the surface of PPE were Mo, P, Ti, and Zn. XRD patterns displayed a notorious decrease in the crystallinity of polypropylene face masks, which could alter its interaction with external contaminants and stability. The next steps in this line of research were discussed.

Macroalgae in biomonitoring of metal pollution in the Bay of Bengal coastal waters of Cox's Bazar and surrounding areas.

Although coastal water marine algae have been popularly used by others as indicators of heavy metal pollution, data within the Bay of Bengal for the estuarine Cox's Bazar region and Saint Martin's Island has remained scarce. Using marine algae, the study herein forms an effort in biomonitoring of metal contamination in the aforementioned Bangladesh areas. A total of 10 seaweed species were collected, including edible varieties, analyzed for metal levels through the use of the technique of EDXRF. From greatest to least, measured mean metal concentrations in descending order have been found to be K > Fe > Zr > Br > Sr > Zn > Mn > Rb > Cu > As > Pb > Cr > Co. Potential toxic heavy metals such as Pb, As, and Cr appear at lower concentration values compared to that found for essential mineral elements. However, the presence of Pb in Sargassum oligocystum species has been observed to exceed the maximum international guidance level. Given that some of the algae species are cultivated for human consumption, the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic indices were calculated, shown to be slightly lower than the maxima recommended by the international organizations. Overall, the present results are consistent with literature data suggesting that heavy metal macroalgae biomonitoring may be species-specific. To the best of our knowledge, this study represents the first comprehensive macroalgae biomonitoring study of metal contamination from the coastal waters of Cox's Bazar and beyond.

Investigating the current status of COVID-19 related plastics and their potential impact on human health.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a sudden global increase in the production, consumption, and mismanagement of personal protective equipment (PPE). As plastic-based PPE such as disposable face masks and gloves have become widely used, human exposure to PPE-derived pollutants may occur through indirect and direct pathways. This review explores the potential health impacts related to plastic-based PPE through these pathways. Face masks release microplastics, which are directly inhaled during use or transported through the environment. The latter can adsorb chemical contaminants and harbor pathogenic microbiota, and once consumed by organisms, they can translocate to multiple organs upon intake, potentially causing detrimental and cytotoxic effects. However, more research is required to have a comprehensive overview of the human health effects.

Personal protective equipment (PPE) pollution driven by the COVID-19 pandemic in Cox's Bazar, the longest natural beach in the world.

The extensive use of personal protective equipment (PPE) driven by the COVID-19 pandemic has become an important contributor to marine plastic pollution. However, there are very few studies quantifying and characterizing this type of pollution in coastal areas. In the present study, we monitored the occurrence of PPE (face masks, bouffant caps, and gloves) discarded in 13 sites along Cox's Bazar beach, the longest naturally occurring beach in the world. The vast majority of the items were face masks (97.9%), and the mean PPE density across sites was 6.29 × 10-3 PPE m-2. The presence of illegal dumping sites was the main source of PPE, which was mainly located on touristic/recreational beaches. Fishing activity contributed to PPE pollution at a lower level. Poor solid waste management practices in Cox's Bazar demonstrated to be a major driver of PPE pollution. The potential solutions and sustainable alternatives were discussed.

Marine macroinvertebrates inhabiting plastic litter in Peru.

Marine litter, such as plastic bags, bottles, fabrics, or fishing gear, serve as a shelter for many marine organisms that are likely to colonize artificial substrata. Such assemblages can potentially turn marine litter into vectors of alien invasive species (AIS). Here, we report the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates inhabiting marine litter in Peruvian beaches. Results indicate that most of the fouled items found came from land-based sources (81.5%) and Bivalvia was the most abundant class (53.5%), mainly composed of the mussel Semimytilus algosus. No significant differences were found in the abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates (class level) among sampling sites or sources of litter. Polypropylene and low-density polyethylene items were most frequently found with fouled biota. Although none of the identified species were non-native to the coast of Peru, we discuss marine litter as a potential source of AIS in this region.

Occurrence of personal protective equipment (PPE) associated with the COVID-19 pandemic along the coast of Lima, Peru.

The use and disposal of face masks, gloves, face shields, and other types of personal protective equipment (PPE) have increased dramatically due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. Many governments enforce the use of PPE as an efficient and inexpensive way to reduce the transmission of the virus. However, this may pose a new challenge to solid waste management and exacerbate plastic pollution. The aim of the present study was to report the occurrence and distribution of COVID-19-associated PPE along the coast of the overpopulated city of Lima, Peru, and determine the influence of the activities carried out in each study site. In general terms, 138 PPE items were found in 11 beaches during 12 sampling weeks. The density was in the range of 0 to 7.44 × 10-4 PPE m-2. Microplastic release, colonization of invasive species, and entanglement or ingestion by apex predators are some of the potential threats identified. Recreational beaches were the most polluted sites, followed by surfing, and fishing sites. This may be because recreational beaches are many times overcrowded by beachgoers. Additionally, most of the PPE was found to be discarded by beachgoers rather than washed ashore. The lack of environmental awareness, education, and coastal mismanagement may pose a threat to the marine environment through marine litter and plastic pollution. Significant efforts are required to shift towards a sustainable solid waste management. Novel alternatives involve redesigning masks based on degradable plastics and recycling PPE by obtaining liquid fuels through pyrolysis.

New plastic formations in the Anthropocene.

Plastic pollution is one of the major challenges in the Anthropocene. Upon reaching the marine environment, plastic debris is subject to anthropogenic and environmental conditions that result in novel items that vary in composition, physical and chemical characteristics. Here, we reviewed and discussed the potential fate and threat to the environment of four recently described plastic formations: Plastiglomerates, pyroplastics, plasticrusts, and anthropoquinas. The threats identified were mostly related to the release of toxic chemicals and plastic ingestion. Transportation of alien invasive species or microbial pathogens and fragmentation of larger plastics into microplastics (<5 mm), potentially reaching marine trophic webs, are suspected as potential impacts based on the characteristics of these plastic formations. Some plastic forms may persist in the environment and voyage across the ocean, while others are denser and less likely to enter the plastic cycle or interact with biota. In the latter case, plastics are expected to become buried in the sediment and incorporate into the geological record. It is necessary to establish sampling protocols or standards that are specific to each plastic formation and start reporting the occurrence of these new plastic categories as such to avoid underestimating plastic pollution in marine environments. It is suggested that monitoring plans include these categories and identify potential sources. Further research must focus on investigating whether the suspected impacts are a matter of concern. In this sense, we have suggested research questions to address the knowledge gaps and have a better understanding of the impacts and distribution of the new plastic forms.

Sorption of chemical contaminants on degradable and non-degradable microplastics: Recent progress and research trends.

Microplastics (<5 mm) are ubiquitous contaminants of growing concern. These have been found in multiple environmental compartments, including remote sites where anthropogenic activity is null. Once released, microplastics interact with multiple chemicals in the environment, many of which are classified as organic contaminants or heavy metals. Some contaminants have an affinity for microplastics, attributed to certain sorption mechanisms, and thus become vectors of hazardous chemicals. Here, we focused on the sorption behavior of degradable and non-degradable microplastics, including field and laboratory experiments. We reviewed the sorption mechanisms, namely hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic interactions, pore-filling, Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonding, and π-π interactions, and the factors strengthening or weakening these mechanisms. Then, we analyzed the literature investigating the sorption behavior of a wide range of chemicals contaminants on microplastics, and the current knowledge regarding the occurrence of organic contaminants and heavy metals on microplastics extracted from the environment. The future perspectives and research priorities were discussed. It is apparent that degradable microplastics, such as polylactic acid or polybutylene succinate, have a greater affinity for hydrophobic contaminants than conventional synthetic non-degradable microplastics according to recent studies. However, studies assessing degradable microplastics are scarce and much research is required to further prove this point. We stated several knowledge gaps in this new line of research and suggest the future studies to follow an integrative approach, allowing to comprehend the multiple factors involved, such as ecotoxicity, bioaccumulation, and fate of the chemical contaminants.

Global distribution of two polystyrene-derived contaminants in the marine environment: A review.

Plastic pollution is one of the major issues impacting on the marine environment. Plastic polymers are known to leach industrial chemicals and associated contaminants. In this review, we focused on assessing the global distribution and concentration of two polystyrene-derived contaminants, hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs) and styrene oligomers (SOs), in marine sediments and seawater. Overall, most of the studies were carried out in Asia, North America, and Europe. Relatively high concentrations of these contaminants are generally attributed to the proximity of urban cities, plastic industries, polystyrene pollution, and aquaculture. Moreover, the concentrations in sediments are many times higher than in seawater. HBCDs were found to be a negligible risk to marine biota when compared to the ecotoxicological endpoints. However, realistic concentrations of SOs could compromise the wellbeing of certain species in highly polluted sites. The future perspectives and research were discussed.

A methodological approach of the current literature on microplastic contamination in terrestrial environments: Current knowledge and baseline considerations.

Plastic pollution is one of the major challenges in the Anthropocene. A plastic waste sub-product, microplastics (<5 mm), has been regarded as contaminants of concern for its detrimental effects and widespread in the environment. Most studies assessing microplastics focused on marine environments, while terrestrial and soil systems have been overlooked. In this review, we analyzed the current knowledge regarding microplastic pollution in natural soil or agricultural ecosystems. We focused on reviewing the procedural steps for microplastic extraction and identification in detail. The heterogeneity of the methods applied, lack of standardized procedures and incompatible parameters reported, make the results incomparable among most studies. Several microplastic concentration units are needed to make studies comparable. Correctly determining and reporting microplastic morphotypes are key to understanding the sources of contamination. Minimal considerations and recommendations were stated for extraction, digestion, filtration, and polymer identification procedures. Baseline contamination prevention measures were identified as mandatory along the entire sampling, handling and identification procedures. Lastly, knowledge gaps were identified and discussed for further research.