Monomeric agonist peptide/MHCII complexes activate T-cells in an autonomous fashion.

Molecular crowding of agonist peptide/MHC class II complexes (pMHCIIs) with structurally similar, yet per se non-stimulatory endogenous pMHCIIs is postulated to sensitize T-cells for the recognition of single antigens on the surface of dendritic cells and B-cells. When testing this premise with the use of advanced live cell microscopy, we observe pMHCIIs as monomeric, randomly distributed entities diffusing rapidly after entering the APC surface. Synaptic TCR engagement of highly abundant endogenous pMHCIIs is low or non-existent and affects neither TCR engagement of rare agonist pMHCII in early and advanced synapses nor agonist-induced TCR-proximal signaling. Our findings highlight the capacity of single freely diffusing agonist pMHCIIs to elicit the full T-cell response in an autonomous and peptide-specific fashion with consequences for adaptive immunity and immunotherapeutic approaches.

Systemic Inflammation and Normocytic Anemia in DOCK11 Deficiency.

BACKGROUND: Increasing evidence links genetic defects affecting actin-regulatory proteins to diseases with severe autoimmunity and autoinflammation, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. Dedicator of cytokinesis 11 (DOCK11) activates the small Rho guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) cell division cycle 42 (CDC42), a central regulator of actin cytoskeleton dynamics. The role of DOCK11 in human immune-cell function and disease remains unknown. METHODS: We conducted genetic, immunologic, and molecular assays in four patients from four unrelated families who presented with infections, early-onset severe immune dysregulation, normocytic anemia of variable severity associated with anisopoikilocytosis, and developmental delay. Functional assays were performed in patient-derived cells, as well as in mouse and zebrafish models. RESULTS: We identified rare, X-linked germline mutations in DOCK11 in the patients, leading to a loss of protein expression in two patients and impaired CDC42 activation in all four patients. Patient-derived T cells did not form filopodia and showed abnormal migration. In addition, the patient-derived T cells, as well as the T cells from Dock11-knockout mice, showed overt activation and production of proinflammatory cytokines that were associated with an increased degree of nuclear translocation of nuclear factor of activated T cell 1 (NFATc1). Anemia and aberrant erythrocyte morphologic features were recapitulated in a newly generated dock11-knockout zebrafish model, and anemia was amenable to rescue on ectopic expression of constitutively active CDC42. CONCLUSIONS: Germline hemizygous loss-of-function mutations affecting the actin regulator DOCK11 were shown to cause a previously unknown inborn error of hematopoiesis and immunity characterized by severe immune dysregulation and systemic inflammation, recurrent infections, and anemia. (Funded by the European Research Council and others.).

A DNA Origami-Based Biointerface to Interrogate the Spatial Requirements for Sensitized T-Cell Antigen Recognition.

When T cells scan the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), they can detect the presence of just a few antigenic peptide/MHC complexes (pMHCs), in some cases even a single agonist pMHC. These are typically vastly outnumbered by structurally similar yet non-stimulatory endogenous pMHCs. How T cells achieve this enormous sensitivity and selectivity is still not clear, in particular in view of the rather moderate (1-100 µM) affinity that T-cell receptors (TCRs) typically exert for antigenic pMHCs. Experimental approaches that enable the control and quantification of physical input parameters within the context of the immunological synapse to precisely interrogate the molecular consequences of TCR-engagement, appear highly advantageous when searching for better answers.We here describe the implementation of a biointerface that allows to experimentally define molecular distances between T-cell ligands as a means to correlate them with molecular dynamics of antigen engagement, downstream signaling, and the overall T-cell response. The basis of this biointerface is DNA origami nanostructures, which are (i) rigid and highly versatile platforms that can (ii) be embedded as laterally mobile entities within supported lipid bilayers and functionalized (iii) in a site-specific and orthogonal manner with (iv) one or more proteins of choice.

Unique roles of co-receptor-bound LCK in helper and cytotoxic T cells.

The kinase LCK and CD4/CD8 co-receptors are crucial components of the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling machinery, leading to key T cell fate decisions. Despite decades of research, the roles of CD4-LCK and CD8-LCK interactions in TCR triggering in vivo remain unknown. In this study, we created animal models expressing endogenous levels of modified LCK to resolve whether and how co-receptor-bound LCK drives TCR signaling. We demonstrated that the role of LCK depends on the co-receptor to which it is bound. The CD8-bound LCK is largely dispensable for antiviral and antitumor activity of cytotoxic T cells in mice; however, it facilitates CD8+ T cell responses to suboptimal antigens in a kinase-dependent manner. By contrast, the CD4-bound LCK is required for efficient development and function of helper T cells via a kinase-independent stabilization of surface CD4. Overall, our findings reveal the role of co-receptor-bound LCK in T cell biology, show that CD4- and CD8-bound LCK drive T cell development and effector immune responses using qualitatively different mechanisms and identify the co-receptor-LCK interactions as promising targets for immunomodulation.

Strategies for the Site-Specific Decoration of DNA Origami Nanostructures with Functionally Intact Proteins.

DNA origami structures provide flexible scaffolds for the organization of single biomolecules with nanometer precision. While they find increasing use for a variety of biological applications, the functionalization with proteins at defined stoichiometry, high yield, and under preservation of protein function remains challenging. In this study, we applied single molecule fluorescence microscopy in combination with a cell biological functional assay to systematically evaluate different strategies for the site-specific decoration of DNA origami structures, focusing on efficiency, stoichiometry, and protein functionality. Using an activating ligand of the T-cell receptor (TCR) as the protein of interest, we found that two commonly used methodologies underperformed with regard to stoichiometry and protein functionality. While strategies employing tetravalent wildtype streptavidin for coupling of a biotinylated TCR-ligand yielded mixed populations of DNA origami structures featuring up to three proteins, the use of divalent (dSAv) or DNA-conjugated monovalent streptavidin (mSAv) allowed for site-specific attachment of a single biotinylated TCR-ligand. The most straightforward decoration strategy, via covalent DNA conjugation, resulted in a 3-fold decrease in ligand potency, likely due to charge-mediated impairment of protein function. Replacing DNA with charge-neutral peptide nucleic acid (PNA) in a ligand conjugate emerged as the coupling strategy with the best overall performance in our study, as it produced the highest yield with no multivalent DNA origami structures and fully retained protein functionality. With our study we aim to provide guidelines for the stoichiometrically defined, site-specific functionalization of DNA origami structures with proteins of choice serving a wide range of biological applications.

Temporal analysis of T-cell receptor-imposed forces via quantitative single molecule FRET measurements.

Mechanical forces acting on ligand-engaged T-cell receptors (TCRs) have previously been implicated in T-cell antigen recognition, yet their magnitude, spread, and temporal behavior are still poorly defined. We here report a FRET-based sensor equipped either with a TCR-reactive single chain antibody fragment or peptide-loaded MHC, the physiological TCR-ligand. The sensor was tethered to planar glass-supported lipid bilayers (SLBs) and informed most directly on the magnitude and kinetics of TCR-imposed forces at the single molecule level. When confronting T-cells with gel-phase SLBs we observed both prior and upon T-cell activation a single, well-resolvable force-peak of approximately 5 pN and force loading rates on the TCR of 1.5 pN per second. When facing fluid-phase SLBs instead, T-cells still exerted tensile forces yet of threefold reduced magnitude and only prior to but not upon activation.

Histone deacetylase 1 controls CD4+ T cell trafficking in autoinflammatory diseases.

CD4+ T cell trafficking is a fundamental property of adaptive immunity. In this study, we uncover a novel role for histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) in controlling effector CD4+ T cell migration, thereby providing mechanistic insight into why a T cell-specific deletion of HDAC1 protects against experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). HDAC1-deficient CD4+ T cells downregulated genes associated with leukocyte extravasation. In vitro, HDAC1-deficient CD4+ T cells displayed aberrant morphology and migration on surfaces coated with integrin LFA-1 ligand ICAM-1 and showed an impaired ability to arrest on and to migrate across a monolayer of primary mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells under physiological flow. Moreover, HDAC1 deficiency reduced homing of CD4+ T cells into the intestinal epithelium and lamina propria preventing weight-loss, crypt damage and intestinal inflammation in adoptive CD4+ T cell transfer colitis. This correlated with reduced expression levels of LFA-1 integrin chains CD11a and CD18 as well as of selectin ligands CD43, CD44 and CD162 on transferred circulating HDAC1-deficient CD4+ T cells. Our data reveal that HDAC1 controls T cell-mediated autoimmunity via the regulation of CD4+ T cell trafficking into the CNS and intestinal tissues.

DNA origami demonstrate the unique stimulatory power of single pMHCs as T cell antigens.

T cells detect with their T cell antigen receptors (TCRs) the presence of rare agonist peptide/MHC complexes (pMHCs) on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). How extracellular ligand binding triggers intracellular signaling is poorly understood, yet spatial antigen arrangement on the APC surface has been suggested to be a critical factor. To examine this, we engineered a biomimetic interface based on laterally mobile functionalized DNA origami platforms, which allow for nanoscale control over ligand distances without interfering with the cell-intrinsic dynamics of receptor clustering. When targeting TCRs via stably binding monovalent antibody fragments, we found the minimum signaling unit promoting efficient T cell activation to consist of two antibody-ligated TCRs within a distance of 20 nm. In contrast, transiently engaging antigenic pMHCs stimulated T cells robustly as well-isolated entities. These results identify pairs of antibody-bound TCRs as minimal receptor entities for effective TCR triggering yet validate the exceptional stimulatory potency of single isolated pMHC molecules.

A Multimodal Platform for Simultaneous T-Cell Imaging, Defined Activation, and Mechanobiological Characterization.

T-cell antigen recognition is accompanied by extensive morphological rearrangements of the contact zone between the T-cell and the antigen-presenting cell (APC). This process involves binding of the T-cell receptor (TCR) complex to antigenic peptides presented via MHC on the APC surface, the interaction of costimulatory and adhesion proteins, remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton, and the initiation of downstream signaling processes such as the release of intracellular calcium. However, multiparametric time-resolved analysis of these processes is hampered by the difficulty in recording the different readout modalities at high quality in parallel. In this study, we present a platform for simultaneous quantification of TCR distribution via total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, of intracellular calcium levels, and of T-cell-exerted forces via atomic force microscopy (AFM). In our method, AFM cantilevers were used to bring single T-cells into contact with the activating surface. We designed the platform specifically to enable the study of T-cell triggering via functionalized fluid-supported lipid bilayers, which represent a widely accepted model system to stimulate T-cells in an antigen-specific manner. In this paper, we showcase the possibilities of this platform using primary transgenic T-cells triggered specifically via their cognate antigen presented by MHCII.

The SPPL3-Defined Glycosphingolipid Repertoire Orchestrates HLA Class I-Mediated Immune Responses.

HLA class I (HLA-I) glycoproteins drive immune responses by presenting antigens to cognate CD8+ T cells. This process is often hijacked by tumors and pathogens for immune evasion. Because options for restoring HLA-I antigen presentation are limited, we aimed to identify druggable HLA-I pathway targets. Using iterative genome-wide screens, we uncovered that the cell surface glycosphingolipid (GSL) repertoire determines effective HLA-I antigen presentation. We show that absence of the protease SPPL3 augmented B3GNT5 enzyme activity, resulting in upregulation of surface neolacto-series GSLs. These GSLs sterically impeded antibody and receptor interactions with HLA-I and diminished CD8+ T cell activation. Furthermore, a disturbed SPPL3-B3GNT5 pathway in glioma correlated with decreased patient survival. We show that the immunomodulatory effect could be reversed through GSL synthesis inhibition using clinically approved drugs. Overall, our study identifies a GSL signature that inhibits immune recognition and represents a potential therapeutic target in cancer, infection, and autoimmunity.

Unscrambling fluorophore blinking for comprehensive cluster detection via photoactivated localization microscopy.

Determining nanoscale protein distribution via Photoactivated Localization Microscopy (PALM) mandates precise knowledge of the applied fluorophore's blinking properties to counteract overcounting artifacts that distort the resulting biomolecular distributions. Here, we present a readily applicable methodology to determine, optimize and quantitatively account for the blinking behavior of any PALM-compatible fluorophore. Using a custom-designed platform, we reveal complex blinking of two photoswitchable fluorescence proteins (PS-CFP2 and mEOS3.2) and two photoactivatable organic fluorophores (PA Janelia Fluor 549 and Abberior CAGE 635) with blinking cycles on time scales of several seconds. Incorporating such detailed information in our simulation-based analysis package allows for robust evaluation of molecular clustering based on individually recorded single molecule localization maps.

The cytoskeletal regulator HEM1 governs B cell development and prevents autoimmunity.

The WAVE regulatory complex (WRC) is crucial for assembly of the peripheral branched actin network constituting one of the main drivers of eukaryotic cell migration. Here, we uncover an essential role of the hematopoietic-specific WRC component HEM1 for immune cell development. Germline-encoded HEM1 deficiency underlies an inborn error of immunity with systemic autoimmunity, at cellular level marked by WRC destabilization, reduced filamentous actin, and failure to assemble lamellipodia. Hem1-/- mice display systemic autoimmunity, phenocopying the human disease. In the absence of Hem1, B cells become deprived of extracellular stimuli necessary to maintain the strength of B cell receptor signaling at a level permissive for survival of non-autoreactive B cells. This shifts the balance of B cell fate choices toward autoreactive B cells and thus autoimmunity.

Homo- and Heteroassociations Drive Activation of ErbB3.

Dimerization or the formation of higher-order oligomers is required for the activation of ErbB receptor tyrosine kinases. The heregulin (HRG) receptor, ErbB3, must heterodimerize with other members of the family, preferentially ErbB2, to form a functional signal transducing complex. Here, we applied single molecule imaging capable of detecting long-lived and mobile associations to measure their stoichiometry and mobility and analyzed data from experiments globally, taking the different lateral mobility of monomeric and dimeric molecular species into account. Although ErbB3 was largely monomeric in the absence of stimulation and ErbB2 co-expression, a small fraction was present as constitutive homodimers exhibiting a ∼40% lower mobility than monomers. HRG stimulation increased the homodimeric fraction of ErbB3 significantly and reduced the mobility of homodimers fourfold compared to constitutive homodimers. Expression of ErbB2 elevated the homodimeric fraction of ErbB3 even in unstimulated cells and induced a ∼2-fold reduction in the lateral mobility of ErbB3 homodimers. The mobility of ErbB2 was significantly lower than that of ErbB3, and HRG induced a less pronounced decrease in the diffusion coefficient of all ErbB2 molecules and ErbB3/ErbB2 heterodimers than in the mobility of ErbB3. The slower diffusion of ErbB2 compared to ErbB3 was abolished by depolymerizing actin filaments, whereas ErbB2 expression induced a substantial rearrangement of microfilaments, implying a bidirectional interaction between ErbB2 and actin. HRG stimulation of cells co-expressing ErbB3 and ErbB2 led to the formation of ErbB3 homodimers and ErbB3/ErbB2 heterodimers in a competitive fashion. Although pertuzumab, an antibody binding to the dimerization arm of ErbB2, completely abolished the formation of constitutive and HRG-induced ErbB3/ErbB2 heterodimers, it only slightly blocked ErbB3 homodimerization. The results imply that a dynamic equilibrium exists between constitutive and ligand-induced homo- and heterodimers capable of shaping transmembrane signaling.

TCRs are randomly distributed on the plasma membrane of resting antigen-experienced T cells.

The main function of T cells is to identify harmful antigens as quickly and precisely as possible. Super-resolution microscopy data have indicated that global clustering of T cell antigen receptors (TCRs) occurs before T cell activation. Such pre-activation clustering has been interpreted as representing a potential regulatory mechanism that fine tunes the T cell response. We found here that apparent TCR nanoclustering could be attributed to overcounting artifacts inherent to single-molecule-localization microscopy. Using complementary super-resolution approaches and statistical image analysis, we found no indication of global nanoclustering of TCRs on antigen-experienced CD4+ T cells under non-activating conditions. We also used extensive simulations of super-resolution images to provide quantitative limits for the degree of randomness of the TCR distribution. Together our results suggest that the distribution of TCRs on the plasma membrane is optimized for fast recognition of antigen in the first phase of T cell activation.

Extracellular Purine Metabolism Is the Switchboard of Immunosuppressive Macrophages and a Novel Target to Treat Diseases With Macrophage Imbalances.

If misregulated, macrophage (Mϕ)-T cell interactions can drive chronic inflammation thereby causing diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). We report that in a proinflammatory environment, granulocyte-Mϕ (GM-CSF)- and Mϕ colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF)-dependent Mϕs have dichotomous effects on T cell activity. While GM-CSF-dependent Mϕs show a highly stimulatory activity typical for M1 Mϕs, M-CSF-dependent Mϕs, marked by folate receptor ß (FRß), adopt an immunosuppressive M2 phenotype. We find the latter to be caused by the purinergic pathway that directs release of extracellular ATP and its conversion to immunosuppressive adenosine by co-expressed CD39 and CD73. Since we observed a misbalance between immunosuppressive and immunostimulatory Mϕs in human and murine arthritic joints, we devised a new strategy for RA treatment based on targeted delivery of a novel methotrexate (MTX) formulation to the immunosuppressive FRß+CD39+CD73+ Mϕs, which boosts adenosine production and curtails the dominance of proinflammatory Mϕs. In contrast to untargeted MTX, this approach leads to potent alleviation of inflammation in the murine arthritis model. In conclusion, we define the Mϕ extracellular purine metabolism as a novel checkpoint in Mϕ cell fate decision-making and an attractive target to control pathological Mϕs in immune-mediated diseases.

RASGRP1 deficiency causes immunodeficiency with impaired cytoskeletal dynamics.

RASGRP1 is an important guanine nucleotide exchange factor and activator of the RAS-MAPK pathway following T cell antigen receptor (TCR) signaling. The consequences of RASGRP1 mutations in humans are unknown. In a patient with recurrent bacterial and viral infections, born to healthy consanguineous parents, we used homozygosity mapping and exome sequencing to identify a biallelic stop-gain variant in RASGRP1. This variant segregated perfectly with the disease and has not been reported in genetic databases. RASGRP1 deficiency was associated in T cells and B cells with decreased phosphorylation of the extracellular-signal-regulated serine kinase ERK, which was restored following expression of wild-type RASGRP1. RASGRP1 deficiency also resulted in defective proliferation, activation and motility of T cells and B cells. RASGRP1-deficient natural killer (NK) cells exhibited impaired cytotoxicity with defective granule convergence and actin accumulation. Interaction proteomics identified the dynein light chain DYNLL1 as interacting with RASGRP1, which links RASGRP1 to cytoskeletal dynamics. RASGRP1-deficient cells showed decreased activation of the GTPase RhoA. Treatment with lenalidomide increased RhoA activity and reversed the migration and activation defects of RASGRP1-deficient lymphocytes.

Anisotropic aberration correction using region of interest based digital adaptive optics in Fourier domain OCT.

In this paper a numerical technique is presented to compensate for anisotropic optical aberrations, which are usually present across the lateral field of view in the out of focus regions, in high resolution optical coherence tomography and microscopy (OCT/OCM) setups. The recorded enface image field at different depths in the tomogram is digitally divided into smaller sub-regions or the regions of interest (ROIs), processed individually using subaperture based digital adaptive optics (DAO), and finally stitched together to yield a final image with a uniform diffraction limited resolution across the entire field of view (FOV). Using this method, a sub-micron lateral resolution is achieved over a depth range of 218 [Formula: see text]for a nano-particle phantom sample imaged using a fiber based point scanning spectral domain (SD) OCM system with a limited depth of focus (DOF) of ~7 [Formula: see text]at a numerical aperture (NA) of 0.6. Thus, an increase in DOF by ~30x is demonstrated in this case. The application of this method is also shown in ex vivo mouse adipose tissue.