Modelling the impact of CD4 testing on mortality from TB and cryptococcal meningitis among patients with advanced HIV disease in nine countries.

INTRODUCTION: Despite antiretroviral therapy (ART) scale-up among people living with HIV (PLHIV), those with advanced HIV disease (AHD) (defined in adults as CD4 count <200 cells/mm3 or clinical stage 3 or 4), remain at high risk of death from opportunistic infections. The shift from routine baseline CD4 testing towards viral load testing in conjunction with "Test and Treat" has limited AHD identification. METHODS: We used official estimates and existing epidemiological data to project deaths from tuberculosis (TB) and cryptococcal meningitis (CM) among PLHIV-initiating ART with CD4 <200 cells/mm3 , in the absence of select World Health Organization recommended diagnostic or therapeutic protocols for patients with AHD. We modelled the reduction in deaths, based on the performance of screening/diagnostic testing and the coverage and efficacy of treatment/preventive therapies for TB and CM. We compared projected TB and CM deaths in the first year of ART from 2019 to 2024, with and without CD4 testing. The analysis was performed for nine countries: South Africa, Kenya, Lesotho, Mozambique, Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo. RESULTS: The effect of CD4 testing comes through increased identification of AHD and consequent eligibility for protocols for AHD prevention, diagnosis and management; algorithms for CD4 testing avert between 31% and 38% of deaths from TB and CM in the first year of ART. The number of CD4 tests required per death averted varies widely by country from approximately 101 for South Africa to 917 for Kenya. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis supports retaining baseline CD4 testing to avert deaths from TB and CM, the two most deadly opportunistic infections among patients with AHD. However, national programmes will need to weigh the cost of increasing CD4 access against other HIV-related priorities and allocate resources accordingly.

The COVID-19-wildfire smoke paradox: Reduced risk of all-cause mortality due to wildfire smoke in Colorado during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: In 2020, the American West faced two competing challenges: the COVID-19 pandemic and the worst wildfire season on record. Several studies have investigated the impact of wildfire smoke (WFS) on COVID-19 morbidity and mortality, but little is known about how these two public health challenges impact mortality risk for other causes. OBJECTIVES: Using a time-series design, we evaluated how daily risk of mortality due to WFS exposure differed for periods before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Our study included daily data for 11 counties in the Front Range region of Colorado (2010-2020). We assessed WFS exposure using data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and used mortality counts from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. We estimated the interaction between WFS and the pandemic (an indicator variable) on mortality risk using generalized additive models adjusted for year, day of week, fine particulate matter, ozone, temperature, and a smoothed term for day of year. RESULTS: WFS impacted the study area on 10% of county-days. We observed a positive association between the presence of WFS and all-cause mortality risk (incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 1.03, 95%CI: 1.01-1.04 for same-day exposures) during the period before the pandemic; however, WFS exposure during the pandemic resulted in decreased risk of all-cause mortality (IRR = 0.90, 95%CI: 0.87-0.93 for same-day exposures). DISCUSSION: We hypothesize that mitigation efforts during the first year of the pandemic, e.g., mask mandates, along with high ambient WFS levels encouraged health behaviors that reduced exposure to WFS and reduced risk of all-cause mortality. Our results suggest a need to examine how associations between WFS and mortality are impacted by pandemic-related factors and that there may be lessons from the pandemic that could be translated into health-protective policies during future wildfire events.

Total cost of care associated with opioid use disorder treatment.

The opioid epidemic in the United States disproportionately affects Medicaid beneficiaries than other groups. This results in a significant financial burden on state Medicaid programs. In this analysis, we investigate the association of medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD) treatment initiation and linkage to ongoing care on overall healthcare costs of Medicaid Fee-for-Service patients. We conducted a retrospective study among adult patients diagnosed with opioid use disorder (OUD) and who had a clinical encounter at a safety-net institution in Denver Colorado in 2020. Three categories of MOUD status of patients were defined: 1) identified with OUD but did not receive MOUD; 2) initiated MOUD but not linked to ongoing treatment and 3) received MOUD and linked to ongoing treatment. Our outcome variable was per-member per-month total healthcare cost. We estimated a multivariable model to test the association between healthcare cost and MOUD status, while controlling for demographic and risk classification variables. We found that in individuals with OUD who initiated MOUD treatment but were not linked to ongoing care had the highest healthcare cost, while those who were linked to ongoing MOUD treatment had the lowest healthcare cost. MOUD treatment is not only effective at addressing the significant morbidity and mortality burden of OUD but also associated with decreased financial cost, which is disproportionately incurred by Medicaid. Additional policy and care delivery changes are needed to focus efforts to improve linkage to ongoing treatment.

Defining Opioid-related Problems Using a Health Care Safety Net Institution's Inpatient Electronic Health Records: Limitations of Diagnosis-based Definitions.

BACKGROUND: Measuring clinically relevant opioid-related problems in health care systems is challenging due to the lack of standard definitions and coding practices. Well-defined, opioid-related health problems (ORHPs) would improve prevalence estimates and evaluation of clinical interventions, crisis response, and prevention activities. We sought to estimate prevalence of opioid use disorder (OUD), opioid misuse, and opioid poisoning among inpatients at a large, safety net, health care institution. METHODS: Our study included events documented in the electronic health records (EHRs) among hospitalized patients at Denver Health Medical Center during January 1, 2017 to December 31, 2018. Multiple EHR markers (ie, opioid-related diagnostic codes, clinical assessment, laboratory results, and free-text documentation) were used to develop diagnosis-based and extended definitions for OUD, opioid misuse, and opioid poisoning. We used these definitions to estimate number of hospitalized patients with these conditions. RESULTS: During a 2-year study period, 715 unique patients were identified solely using opioid-related diagnostic codes; OUD codes accounted for the largest proportion (499/715, 69.8%). Extended definitions identified an additional 973 unique patients (~136% increase), which includes 155/973 (15.9%) who were identified by a clinical assessment marker, 1/973 (0.1%) by a laboratory test marker, and 817/973 (84.0%) by a clinical documentation marker. CONCLUSIONS: Solely using diagnostic codes to estimate prevalence of clinically relevant ORHPs missed most patients with ORHPs. More inclusive estimates were generated using additional EHR markers. Improved methods to estimate ORHPs among a health care system's patients would more fully estimate organizational and economic burden to more efficiently allocate resources and ensure capacity to provide clinical services.

Epidemiology and Transmission Dynamics of COVID-19 in an Urban Pediatric US Population.

OBJECTIVE: This analysis summarizes observational epidemiologic data and transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 among people aged <18 years to better characterize the pediatric COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective study of public health surveillance data among children in Denver, Colorado, who were reported to have COVID-19 from March 1, 2020, through September 30, 2021. We used descriptive statistics and bivariate rate ratios (RRs) to describe demographic and clinical characteristics, transmission dynamics, case trends, and ecological associations. RESULTS: A total of 9815 children and adolescents who had COVID-19 were reported during the study period. Adolescents aged 14-17 years had the highest incidence rate (IR) per 1000 people (IR = 107.5; 3021 of 28 108). Hispanic/Latino children had a 1.6 times higher rate of infection than non-Hispanic White children (RR = 1.57; 95% CI, 1.50-1.65; P < .001). Few hospitalizations (n = 138, 1.4%) and deaths (n = 3, 0%) occurred. Most children were symptomatic (4487 of 5499, 81.6%). Within household clusters, a large proportion of pediatric cases (n = 6136) were a secondary case (n = 3959, 64.5%), followed by index case (n = 1170, 19.1%) and co-index case (n = 1007, 16.4%). Non-Hispanic White children had an increased risk of being an index or co-index case (RR = 1.14; 95% CI, 1.06-1.23; P < .001), while Hispanic/Latino children had an increased risk of being a secondary case (RR = 1.07; 95% CI, 1.03-1.11; P < .001). From 2020 to 2021, the association between pediatric case rates and neighborhoods with higher poverty and households with ≥3 people decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Older children and those identifying as Hispanic/Latino had a disproportionate incidence of disease. A sizable proportion of children were considered index cases or co-index cases. Pediatric prevention strategies, especially vaccinations, are vital for pandemic control.

Zambia Assessment of Tuberculosis (TB) and HIV in the Mines (ZATHIM): implications for programs and policies.

BACKGROUND: Mineworkers in Southern Africa have the highest rates of tuberculosis (TB) among working populations in the world (The World Bank, Benefits and costs associated with reducing tuberculosis among Southern Africa's mineworkers, 2014), making mineworkers a key population for TB program efforts. The current evaluation aimed to characterize mineworkers and former (ex-) mineworkers, and assess knowledge, attitudes and practices related to TB and HIV care among mineworkers and healthcare workers (HCWs) in Zambia. METHODS: A mixed-methods evaluation of current and former (ex-) mineworkers and HCWs was conducted in the Copperbelt and North-Western provinces, Zambia. Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) related to TB care and policies were assessed using a structured survey. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were conducted with current and ex-mineworkers to understand perceptions, practices, and barriers related to accessing healthcare for TB. RESULTS: Overall, 2,792 mineworkers and 94 HCWs completed the KAP survey, and 206 (171 current, 71 ex-) mineworkers participated in FGDs. Mineworkers and ex-mineworkers were knowledgeable about TB symptoms (cough; 94%), transmission (81.7%) and treatment (99.2%). Yet, barriers to seeking care were evident with 30% of mineworkers experiencing cough, and 19% reporting 2 or more TB symptoms at the time of the survey. The majority of mineworkers (70.9%) were aware of policies barring persons from working after a diagnosis of TB, and themes from FGDs and HCW comments (n = 32/62; 51.6%) recognized fear of job loss as a critical barrier to providing timely screening and appropriate care for TB among mineworkers. The majority (76.9%) of mineworkers indicated they would not disclose their TB status to their supervisor, but would be willing to share their diagnosis with their spouse (73.8%). CONCLUSION: Fear of job loss, driven by governmental policy and mistrust in mining companies, is a major barrier to healthcare access for TB among mineworkers in Zambia. As a result of these findings, the government policy prohibiting persons from working in the mines following TB disease is being repealed. However, major reforms are urgently needed to mitigate TB among mineworkers, including ensuring the rights of mineworkers and their communities to healthy living and working environments, improved social responsibility of mining companies, and facilitating choice and access to affordable, timely, and high-quality healthcare services.

Missed appointments during COVID-19: The impact of telehealth for persons experiencing homelessness with substance use disorders.

We examined the impact of telehealth on appointment retention among individuals with substance use disorder (SUD) by housing status. We evaluated appointment status using multivariate logistic regression with primary predictor variables of visit modality, patient's housing status and interaction between these two variables. Between March 1 and September 30, 2020, there were 18,206 encounters among 1,626 clients with SUD. For telehealth encounters, the probability of an appointment no-show was significantly higher for persons experiencing homelessness compared to stably housed (37% versus 25%, p < 0.001). Housing status influences the effectiveness of telehealth as a modality of healthcare delivery for individuals with SUD.

Disproportionate Incidence of COVID-19 Infection, Hospitalizations, and Deaths Among Persons Identifying as Hispanic or Latino - Denver, Colorado March-October 2020.

Persons identifying as Hispanic or Latino (Hispanic) represent the second largest racial/ethnic group in the United States (1), yet understanding of the impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in this population is limited. To evaluate COVID-19 health disparities in the community and inform public health, health system, and community-based interventions, local public health authorities analyzed the sociodemographic characteristics of persons who were diagnosed, hospitalized, and who died with COVID-19 in Denver, Colorado. During the first 7 months of the COVID-19 epidemic in Denver (March 6-October 6, 2020) the majority of adult COVID-19 cases (54.8%), hospitalizations (62.1%), and deaths (51.2%) were among persons identifying as Hispanic, more than double the proportion of Hispanic adults in the Denver community (24.9%) (1). Systemic drivers that influence how Hispanic persons live and work increase their exposure risks: compared with non-Hispanic persons, Hispanic persons with COVID-19 in Denver reported larger household sizes and were more likely to report known exposures to household and close contacts with COVID-19, working in an essential industry, and working while ill. Reducing the disproportionate incidence of COVID-19 morbidity and mortality among Hispanic persons will require implementation of strategies that address upstream social and environmental factors that contribute to an increased risk for both infection and transmission and that facilitate improved access to culturally congruent care.

Adherence to Concurrent Tuberculosis Treatment and Antiretroviral Treatment among Co-Infected Persons in South Africa, 2008-2010.

BACKGROUND: Adherence to tuberculosis (TB) treatment and antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces morbidity and mortality among persons co-infected with TB/HIV. We measured adherence and determined factors associated with non-adherence to concurrent TB treatment and ART among co-infected persons in two provinces in South Africa. METHODS: A convenience sample of 35 clinics providing integrated TB/HIV care was included due to financial and logistic considerations. Retrospective chart reviews were conducted among persons who received concurrent TB treatment and ART and who had a TB treatment outcome recorded during 1 January 2008-31 December 2010. Adherence to concurrent TB and HIV treatment was defined as: (1) taking ≥80% of TB prescribed doses by directly observed therapy (DOT) as noted in the patient card; and (2) taking >90% ART doses as documented in the ART medical record during the concurrent treatment period (period of time when the patient was prescribed both TB treatment and ART). Risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to identify factors associated with non-adherence. RESULTS: Of the 1,252 persons receiving concurrent treatment, 138 (11.0%) were not adherent. Non-adherent persons were more likely to have extrapulmonary TB (RR: 1.71, 95% CI: 1.12 to 2.60) and had not disclosed their HIV status (RR: 1.96, 95% CI: 1.96 to 3.76). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of persons with TB/HIV were adherent to concurrent treatment. Close monitoring and support of persons with extrapulmonary TB and for persons who have not disclosed their HIV status may further improve adherence to concurrent TB and antiretroviral treatment.

Completeness and Reliability of the Republic of South Africa National Tuberculosis (TB) Surveillance System.

BACKGROUND: Accurate surveillance data are paramount to effective TB control. The Republic of South Africa's National TB Control Program (NTP) has conducted TB surveillance since 1995 and adopted the Electronic TB Register (ETR) in 2005. This evaluation aimed to determine the completeness and reliability of data in the Republic of South Africa's TB Surveillance System. METHODS: Three of nine provinces, three subdistricts per province, and 54 health facilities were selected by stratified random sampling. At each facility, 30 (or all if <30) patients diagnosed in Quarter 1 2009 were randomly selected for review. Patient information was evaluated across two paper and four electronic sources. Completeness of program indicators between paper and electronic sources was compared with chi-square tests. The kappa statistic was used to evaluate agreement of values. RESULTS: Over one-third (33.7 %) of all persons with presumptive TB recorded as smear positive in the TB Suspect Register did not have any records documenting notification, treatment, or management for TB disease. Of 1339 persons with a record as a TB patient at the facility, 1077 (80 %) were recorded in all data sources. Over 98 % of records contained complete age and sex data. Completeness varied for HIV status (53-86 %; p < 0.001) and DOT during the intensive phase of treatment (17-54 %; p < 0.001). Agreement for sex was excellent across sources (kappa 0.94); moderate for patient type (0.78), treatment regimen (0.79), treatment outcome (0.71); and poor for HIV status (0.33). CONCLUSIONS: The current evaluation revealed that one-third of persons diagnosed with TB disease may not have been notified of their disease or initiated on treatment ('initial defaulters'). The ETR is not capturing all TB patients. Further, among patients with a TB record, completeness and reliability of information in the TB Surveillance System is inconsistent across data sources. Actions are urgently needed to ensure that all diagnosed patients are treated and managed and improve the integrity of surveillance information.

Evaluation of adherence to national treatment guidelines among tuberculosis patients in three provinces of South Africa.

SETTING: Standardised tuberculosis (TB) treatment through directly observed therapy (DOT) is available in South Africa, but the level of adherence to standardised TB treatment and its impact on treatment outcomes is unknown. OBJECTIVES: To describe adherence to standardised TB treatment and provision of DOT, and analyse its impact on treatment outcome. METHODS: We utilised data collected for an evaluation of the South African national TB surveillance system. A treatment regimen was considered appropriate if based on national treatment guidelines. Multivariate log-binomial regression was used to evaluate the association between treatment regimens, including DOT provision, and treatment outcome. RESULTS: Of 1 339 TB cases in the parent evaluation, 598 (44.7%) were excluded from analysis owing to missing outcome or treatment information. The majority (697, 94.1%) of the remaining 741 patients received an appropriate TB regimen. Almost all patients (717, 96.8%) received DOT, 443 (59.8%) throughout the treatment course and 274 (37.0%) during the intensive (256, 34.6%) or continuation (18, 2.4%) phase. Independent predictors of poor outcome were partial DOT (adjusted risk ratio (aRR) 3.1, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.2 - 4.3) and previous treatment default (aRR 2.3, 95% CI 1.1 - 4.8). CONCLUSION: Patients who received incomplete DOT or had a history of defaulting from TB treatment had an increased risk of poor outcomes.

Effect of rapid influenza diagnostic testing on antiviral treatment decisions for patients with influenza-like illness: southwestern U.S., May-December 2009.

Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) had low test sensitivity for detecting 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1pdm09) infection, causing public health authorities to recommend that treatment decisions be based primarily upon risk for influenza complications. We used multivariate Poisson regression analysis to estimate the contribution of RIDT results and risk for H1N1pdm09 complications to receipt of early antiviral (AV) treatment among 290 people with influenza-like illness (ILI) who received an RIDT ≤48 hours after symptom onset from May to December 2009 at four southwestern U.S. facilities. RIDT results had a stronger association with receipt of early AVs (rate ratio [RR] = 3.3, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.4, 4.6) than did the presence of risk factors for H1N1pdm09 complications (age <5 years or high-risk medical conditions) (RR=1.9, 95% CI 1.3, 2.7). Few at-risk people (28/126, 22%) who had a negative RIDT received early AVs, suggesting the need for sustained efforts by public health to influence clinician practices.

Understanding the burden of tuberculosis among American Indians/Alaska Natives in the U.S.: a validation study.

OBJECTIVE: We validated cases of active tuberculosis (TB) recorded in the Indian Health Service (IHS) National Patient Information Reporting System (NPIRS) and evaluated the completeness of TB case reporting from IHS facilities to state health departments. METHODS: We reviewed the medical records of American Indian/Alaska Native (AI/AN) patients at IHS health facilities who were classified as having active TB using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) diagnostic codes from 2006 to 2009 for clinical and laboratory evidence of TB disease. Individuals were reclassified as having active TB disease; recent latent TB infection (LTBI); past positive tuberculin skin test (TST) only; or as having no evidence of TB, LTBI, or a past positive TST. We compared validated active TB cases with corresponding state records to determine if they were reported. RESULTS: The study included 596 patients with active TB as per ICD-9-CM codes. Based on chart review, 111 (18.6%) had active TB; 156 (26.2%) had LTBI; 104 (17.4%) had a past positive TST; and 221 (37.1%) had no evidence of TB disease, LTBI, or a past positive TST. Of the 111 confirmed cases of active TB, 89 (80.2%) resided in participating states; 81 of 89 (91.2%) were verified as reported TB cases. CONCLUSIONS: ICD-9-CM codes for active TB disease in the IHS NPIRS do not accurately reflect the burden of TB among AI/ANs. Most confirmed active TB cases in the IHS health system were reported to the state; the national TB surveillance system may accurately represent the burden of TB in the AI/AN population.

Use of drug-susceptibility testing for management of drug-resistant tuberculosis, Thailand, 2004-2008.

In 2004, routine use of culture and drug-susceptibility testing (DST) was implemented for persons in 5 Thailand provinces with a diagnosis of tuberculosis (TB). To determine if DST results were being used to guide treatment, we conducted a retrospective chart review for patients with rifampin-resistant or multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB during 2004-2008. A total of 208 patients were identified. Median time from clinical sample collection to physician review of DST results was 114 days. Only 5.8% of patients with MDR TB were empirically prescribed an appropriate regimen; an additional 31.3% received an appropriate regimen after DST results were reviewed. Most patients with rifampin -resistant or MDR TB had successful treatment outcomes. Patients with HIV co-infection and patients who were unmarried or had received category II treatment before DST results were reviewed had less successful outcomes. Overall, review of available DST results was delayed, and results were rarely used to improve treatment.

TB tracer teams in South Africa: knowledge, practices and challenges of tracing TB patients to improve adherence.

BACKGROUND: In 2008-2009 the South African National Tuberculosis (TB) Program (NTP) implemented a national pilot project, the TB Tracer Project, aiming to decrease default rates and improve patient outcomes. The current study aimed to inform the NTP by describing the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of TB program personnel involved with tracing activities. METHODS: A self-administered written questionnaire was sent to TB staff, managers and tracer team leaders to assess basic TB knowledge, attitudes and practices. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize results and the chi-squared statistic was used to compare responses of staff at facilities that participated in the TB Tracer Project (tracer) and those that followed standard NTP care (non-tracer). RESULTS: Of 560 total questionnaires distributed, 270 were completed and returned (response rate 48%). Total TB knowledge ranged from 70.8-86.3% correct across all response groups. However, just over half (range 50-59.3%) of each respondent group was able to correctly identify the four components of a DOT encounter. A patient no longer feeling sick was cited by 72.1% of respondents as the reason patients fail to adhere to treatment. Tracer teams were viewed as an effective means to get patients to return to treatment by 96.3% of health facility level respondents. Tracer team leaders reported concerns including lack of logistical support (41.7%), insufficient physical safety precautions (41.7%), and inadequate protection from contracting TB (39.1%). Upon patients returning to treatment at the clinic, facilities included in the TB Tracer Project were significantly more likely to discuss alternate DOTS arrangements than non-tracer facilities (79.2 vs. 66.4%, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: This study identified key components of knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding TB patient tracing activities in South Africa. Educating patients on the essential need to complete treatment irrespective of clinical symptoms may help improve treatment adherence. Future scale-up and integration of TB tracing activities as part of standard TB management should include provisions for standardized training of personnel on the critical elements of DOTS, and for ensuring appropriate supervision, logistical support, and physical safety and TB transmission protection of tracing teams.

Patterns of treatment interruption among patients with multidrug-resistant TB (MDR TB) and association with interim and final treatment outcomes.

BACKGROUND: The reasons that patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) miss treatment are multi-factorial and complex. Identifying patterns of treatment interruption that predict poor outcomes can be used to target program activities aiming to improve treatment adherence. OBJECTIVE: To characterize patterns of treatment interruption among MDR TB patients and determine the association between patterns and treatment outcomes. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of MDR TB patients. A treatment interruption was defined as any time that a patient missed a prescribed dose of treatment for at least 1 day but for a period of less than 2 consecutive months. Patients were characterized by the number, length and variability of interruptions, variability of time between interruptions, and percent of missed doses. Final treatment outcome was dichotomized as a successful (cured or completed) or poor outcome (defaulted, failed, or died). Risk ratios were calculated to determine the association between characteristics of treatment interruption and treatment outcomes. All analyses were conducted in 6 month treatment intervals. RESULTS: Only 7.0% of 583 patients completed treatment without interruption. Of the remaining 542 patients, the median time to the first interruption was 2 ½ months (70 days). In multivariate analysis, patients who had longer interruptions with sporadic variability during the 6-12 month or the 12-18 month treatment period had a significantly increased risk for poor outcomes compared to patients who had short, regular interruptions (RR(adj) 4.37, 95% CI 1.2-15.8;  = 0.03 and RR(adj) 3.38, 95% CI 1.6-7.1; p = 0.001, respectively). In addition, missing 10% or more of the prescribed doses during any 6 month period in the initial 18 months of therapy significantly increased the risk for poor outcomes (RR(adj) range 1.55-2.35; p-value range 0.01-0.005). CONCLUSION: Patients that miss more consecutive days of treatment with sporadic interruption patterns or a greater proportion of treatment are at an increased risk for poor treatment outcomes.

Lack of patient registration in the electronic TB register for sputum smear-positive patients in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

Analysis of diagnostic smear positive records from the laboratory from KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa shows that not all patients are counted in surveillance efforts. However, review of paper-based patient records suggests the majority of identified TB patients are being treated. Directly linking laboratory and clinical records would enhance surveillance information.

Tuberculosis in indigenous peoples in the U.S., 2003-2008.

OBJECTIVES: We examined trends and epidemiology of tuberculosis (TB) across racial/ethnic groups to better understand TB disparities in the United States, with particular focus on American Indians/Alaska Natives (AI/ANs) and Native Hawaiians/other Pacific Islanders (NH/PIs). METHODS: We analyzed cases in the U.S. National Tuberculosis Surveillance System and calculated TB case rates among all racial/ethnic groups from 2003 to 2008. Socioeconomic and health indicators for counties in which TB cases were reported came from the Health Resources and Services Administration Area Resource File. RESULTS: Among the 82,836 TB cases, 914 (1.1%) were in AI/ANs and 362 (0.4%) were in NH/PIs. In 2008, TB case rates for AI/ANs and NH/PIs were 5.9 and 14.7 per 100,000 population, respectively, rates that were more than five and 13 times greater than for non-Hispanic white people (1.1 per 100,000 population). From 2003 to 2008, AI/ANs had the largest percentage decline in TB case rates (-27.4%) for any racial/ethnic group, but NH/PIs had the smallest percentage decline (-3.5%). AI/ANs were more likely than other racial/ethnic groups to be homeless, excessively use alcohol, receive totally directly observed therapy, and come from counties with a greater proportion of people living in poverty and without health insurance. A greater proportion of NH/PIs had extrapulmonary disease and came from counties with a higher proportion of people with a high school diploma. CONCLUSIONS: There is a need to develop flexible TB-control strategies that address the social determinants of health and that are tailored to the specific needs of AI/ANs and NH/PIs in the U.S.

Baseline estimates of diarrhea-associated mortality among United States children before rotavirus vaccine introduction.

OBJECTIVES: Deaths due to diarrhea among US children declined substantially from the 1960s through the 1980s, but have not been recently assessed. We examined diarrhea-associated mortality among young US children from 1992 to 2006 to establish baseline estimates through which the effect of rotavirus vaccines, introduced in 2006, can be assessed. METHODS: National Center for Health Statistics multiple cause-of-death mortality data were used to examine diarrhea-associated deaths and death rates among US children 1 to 59 months of age during 1992-2006. The winter residual method was used to indirectly estimate the annual number of diarrhea-associated deaths attributable to rotavirus. RESULTS: An average of 369 diarrhea-associated deaths/year (3320 total deaths) occurred among US children 1 to 59 months of age during 1992-1998 and 2005-2006. The diarrhea-associated death rate increased 40% between the first 3 and last 2 years of the study period, from an average of 1.6 deaths per 100,000 to 2.3 deaths per 100,000. Black children died at almost 4 times the rate of white children. Diarrhea-associated deaths showed a winter seasonal pattern similar to that of rotavirus, particularly among children 4 to 23 months of age. Using indirect methods, we estimated 25 yearly rotavirus-associated deaths during the study period. Rotavirus vaccination could potentially prevent 21 of these deaths annually. CONCLUSIONS: Diarrhea-associated mortality among US children stabilized but appears to be increasing in recent years. Rotavirus was associated with a small but significant number of preventable deaths. The national multiple cause-of-death data should prove useful for assessing mortality impact of rotavirus vaccination in the United States.

Validation of the GenoType MTBDRplus assay for detection of MDR-TB in a public health laboratory in Thailand.

BACKGROUND: Over the past several years, new diagnostic techniques have been developed to allow for the rapid detection of multidrug resistant tuberculosis. The GenoType MTBDRplus test is a deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) strip assay which uses polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and hybridization to detect genetic mutations in the genes that confer isoniazid (INH) and rifampn (RIF) resistance. This assay has demonstrated good performance and a rapid time to results, making this a promising tool to accelerate MDR-TB diagnosis and improve MDR-TB control. Validation of rapid tests for MDR-TB detection in different settings is needed to ensure acceptable performance, particularly in Asia, which has the largest number of MDR-TB cases in the world but only one previous report, in Vietnam, about the performance of the GenoType MDRplus assay. Thailand is ranked 18th of 22 "high-burden" TB countries in the world, and there is evidence to suggest that rates of MDR-TB are increasing in Thailand. We compared the performance of the GenoType MTBDRplus assay to Mycobacterial Growth Indicator Tube for Antimycobacterial Susceptibility Testing (MGIT AST) for detection INH resistance, RIF resistance, and MDR-TB in stored acid-fast bacilli (AFB)-positive sputum specimens and isolates at a Public TB laboratory in Bangkok, Thailand. METHODS: 50 stored isolates and 164 stored AFB-positive sputum specimens were tested using both the MGIT AST and the GenoType MTBDRplus assay. RESULTS: The GenoType MTBDRplus assay had a sensitivity of 95.3%, 100%, and 94.4% for INH resistance, RIF resistance, and MDR-TB, respectively. The difference in sensitivity between sputum specimens (93%) and isolates (100%) for INH resistance was not statistically significant (p = 0.08). Specificity was 100% for all resistance patterns and for both specimens and isolates. The laboratory processing time was a median of 25 days for MGIT AST and 5 days for the GenoType MTBDRplus (p < 0.01). CONCLUSION: The GenoType MTBDRplus assay has been validated as a rapid and reliable first-line diagnostic test on AFB-positive sputum or MTB isolates for INH resistance, RIF resistance, and MDR-TB in Bangkok, Thailand. Further studies are needed to evaluate its impact on treatment outcome and the feasibility and cost associated with widespread implementation.