Neutron Autoradiography Combined With UV-C Sensitization: Toward the Intracellular Localization of Boron.

Our group has reported the imprint formation of biological material on polycarbonate nuclear track detectors by UV-C exposure, which is used as an approach to simultaneously visualize cell imprints and nuclear tracks coming from the boron neutron capture reaction. Considering that the cell nucleus has a higher UV-C absorption than the cytoplasm and that hematoxylin preferentially stains the nucleus, we proposed to enhance the contrast between these two main cell structures by hematoxylin staining before UV-C sensitization. In this study, several experiments were performed in order to optimize UV-C exposure parameters and chemical etching conditions for cell imprint formation using the SK-BR-3 breast cancer cell line. The proposed method improves significantly the resolution of the cell imprints. It allows clear differentiation of the nucleus from the rest of the cell, together with nuclear tracks pits. Moreover, it reduces considerably the UV-C exposure time, an important experimental issue. The proposed methodology can be applied to study the boron distribution independently from the chosen cell line and/or boron compounds.

Single-Domain Antibodies and the Promise of Modular Targeting in Cancer Imaging and Treatment.

Monoclonal antibodies and their fragments have significantly changed the outcome of cancer in the clinic, effectively inhibiting tumor cell proliferation, triggering antibody-dependent immune effector cell activation and complement mediated cell death. Along with a continued expansion in number, diversity, and complexity of validated tumor targets there is an increasing focus on engineering recombinant antibody fragments for lead development. Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs), in particular those engineered from the variable heavy-chain fragment (VHH gene) found in Camelidae heavy-chain antibodies (or IgG2 and IgG3), are the smallest fragments that retain the full antigen-binding capacity of the antibody with advantageous properties as drugs. For similar reasons, growing attention is being paid to the yet smaller variable heavy chain new antigen receptor (VNAR) fragments found in Squalidae. sdAbs have been selected, mostly from immune VHH libraries, to inhibit or modulate enzyme activity, bind soluble factors, internalize cell membrane receptors, or block cytoplasmic targets. This succinct review is a compilation of recent data documenting the application of engineered, recombinant sdAb in the clinic as epitope recognition "modules" to build monomeric, dimeric and multimeric ligands that target, tag and stall solid tumor growth in vivo. Size, affinity, specificity, and the development profile of sdAbs drugs are seemingly consistent with desirable clinical efficacy and safety requirements. But the hepatotoxicity of the tetrameric anti-DR5-VHH drug in patients with pre-existing anti-drug antibodies halted the phase I clinical trial and called for a thorough pre-screening of the immune and poly-specific reactivities of the sdAb leads.

Silencing peroxiredoxin-2 sensitizes human colorectal cancer cells to ionizing radiation and oxaliplatin.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Antioxidant enzymes decrease the generation of ionizing radiation (IR)-induced free radicals and therefore are associate to radioresistance. The main goal of this work is to study the involvement of peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx2) in the radio and chemoradiotherapy response in CRC cells in vitro and in vivo. We found that Prx2 oxidation state is associated to differential response to ionizing radiation in CRC cell lines. HCT116 radioresistant CRC cell line have lower ROS levels and a higher monomer/dimer Prx2 ratio, compared to halfway resistant Caco-2 and T84, and radiosensitive LoVo cell line. Constitutive and transient Prx2 silencing in CRC cells increase ROS levels, and most importantly, enhance in vitro radiation sensitivity. In addition, we showed that administration of IR plus oxaliplatin in down regulated Prx2 HCT116 cells has higher citotoxic effect than in control cells. Finally, radiosensitizing effect of Prx2 depletion was confirmed in vivo. These results suggest that Prx2 is an important component in tumoral radiation response, and their inhibition could improve radio and chemoradiotherapy protocols in patients with CRC.

Continuous flow generation of magnetoliposomes in a low-cost portable microfluidic platform.

We present a low-cost, portable microfluidic platform that uses laminated polymethylmethacrylate chips, peristaltic micropumps and LEGO® Mindstorms components for the generation of magnetoliposomes that does not require extrusion steps. Mixtures of lipids reconstituted in ethanol and an aqueous phase were injected independently in order to generate a combination of laminar flows in such a way that we could effectively achieve four hydrodynamic focused nanovesicle generation streams. Monodisperse magnetoliposomes with characteristics comparable to those obtained by traditional methods have been obtained. The magnetoliposomes are responsive to external magnetic field gradients, a result that suggests that the nanovesicles can be used in research and applications in nanomedicine.

The tumor microenvironment: characterization, redox considerations, and novel approaches for reactive oxygen species-targeted gene therapy.

The tumor microenvironment is a complex system that involves the interaction between malignant and neighbor stromal cells embedded in a mesh of extracellular matrix (ECM) components. Stromal cells (fibroblasts, endothelial, and inflammatory cells) are co-opted at different stages to help malignant cells invade the surrounding ECM and disseminate. Malignant cells have developed adaptive mechanisms to survive under the extreme conditions of the tumor microenvironment such as restricted oxygen supply (hypoxia), nutrient deprivation, and a prooxidant state among others. These conditions could be eventually used to target drugs that will be activated specifically in this microenvironment. Preclinical studies have shown that modulating cellular/tissue redox state by different gene therapy (GT) approaches was able to control tumor growth. In this review, we describe the most relevant features of the tumor microenvironment, addressing reactive oxygen species-generating sources that promote a prooxidative microenvironment inside the tumor mass. We describe different GT approaches that promote either a decreased or exacerbated prooxidative microenvironment, and those that make use of the differential levels of ROS between cancer and normal cells to achieve tumor growth inhibition.

Phosphorylation and subcellular localization of p27Kip1 regulated by hydrogen peroxide modulation in cancer cells.

The Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1B (p27Kip1) is a key protein in the decision between proliferation and cell cycle exit. Quiescent cells show nuclear p27Kip1, but this protein is exported to the cytoplasm in response to proliferating signals. We recently reported that catalase treatment increases the levels of p27Kip1 in vitro and in vivo in a murine model. In order to characterize and broaden these findings, we evaluated the regulation of p27Kip1 by hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) in human melanoma cells and melanocytes. We observed a high percentage of p27Kip1 positive nuclei in melanoma cells overexpressing or treated with exogenous catalase, while non-treated controls showed a cytoplasmic localization of p27Kip1. Then we studied the levels of p27Kip1 phosphorylated (p27p) at serine 10 (S10) and at threonine 198 (T198) because phosphorylation at these sites enables nuclear exportation of this protein, leading to accumulation and stabilization of p27pT198 in the cytoplasm. We demonstrated by western blot a decrease in p27pS10 and p27pT198 levels in response to H(2)O(2) removal in melanoma cells, associated with nuclear p27Kip1. Melanocytes also exhibited nuclear p27Kip1 and lower levels of p27pS10 and p27pT198 than melanoma cells, which showed cytoplasmic p27Kip1. We also showed that the addition of H(2)O(2) (0.1 µM) to melanoma cells arrested in G1 by serum starvation induces proliferation and increases the levels of p27pS10 and p27pT198 leading to cytoplasmic localization of p27Kip1. Nuclear localization and post-translational modifications of p27Kip1 were also demonstrated by catalase treatment of colorectal carcinoma and neuroblastoma cells, extending our findings to these other human cancer types. In conclusion, we showed in the present work that H(2)O(2) scavenging prevents nuclear exportation of p27Kip1, allowing cell cycle arrest, suggesting that cancer cells take advantage of their intrinsic pro-oxidant state to favor cytoplasmic localization of p27Kip1.

H2O2 scavenging inhibits G1/S transition by increasing nuclear levels of p27KIP1.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate cell cycle regulation by scavenging H(2)O(2) in tumor cells. A significant arrest in the G1 phase of the cell cycle was demonstrated in CH72-T4 carcinoma cells exposed to catalase, associated with a decrease in cyclin D1 and an increase in the CDK inhibitory protein p27(KIP1). Moreover, we found a differential intracellular distribution of p27(KIP1), which remained in the nucleus after catalase treatment. In vivo experiments showed an increase in nuclear levels of p27(KIP1) associated with the inhibition of tumor growth by H(2)O(2) scavenging, confirming in vitro results. To conclude, H(2)O(2) scavenging may induce cell cycle arrest through the modulation of cyclin D1 and p27(KIP1) levels and nuclear localization of p27(KIP1). To our knowledge, this is the first report that demonstrates that the modulation of ROS alters the intracellular localization of a key regulatory protein of G1/S transition.

Induction and rejoining of DNA double strand breaks assessed by H2AX phosphorylation in melanoma cells irradiated with proton and lithium beams.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the induction and rejoining of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) in melanoma cells exposed to low and high linear energy transfer (LET) radiation. METHODS AND MATERIALS: DSBs and survival were determined as a function of dose in melanoma cells (B16-F0) irradiated with monoenergetic proton and lithium beams and with a gamma source. Survival curves were obtained by clonogenic assay and fitted to the linear-quadratic model. DSBs were evaluated by the detection of phosphorylated histone H2AX (gammaH2AX) foci at 30 min and 6 h post-irradiation. RESULTS: Survival curves showed the increasing effectiveness of radiation as a function of LET. gammaH2AX labeling showed an increase in the number of foci vs. dose for all the radiations evaluated. A decrease in the number of foci was found at 6 h post-irradiation for low LET radiation, revealing the repair capacity of DSBs. An increase in the size of gammaH2AX foci in cells irradiated with lithium beams was found, as compared with gamma and proton irradiations, which could be attributed to the clusters of DSBs induced by high LET radiation. Foci size increased at 6 h post-irradiation for lithium and proton irradiations in relation with persistent DSBs, showing a correlation with surviving fraction. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed the response of B16-F0 cells to charged particle beams evaluated by the detection of gammaH2AX foci. We conclude that gammaH2AX foci size is an accurate parameter to correlate the rejoining of DSBs induced by different LET radiations and radiosensitivity.

Suppression of cancer growth by nonviral gene therapy based on a novel reactive oxygen species-responsive promoter.

Increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production has been reported as a distinctive feature of different pathologies including cancer. Therefore, we assessed whether increased ROS production in the cancer microenvironment could be selectively exploited to develop a selective anticancer therapy. For this purpose, we constructed a novel chimeric promoter, based on a ROS-response motif located in the VEGF gene promoter placed, in turn, downstream of a second ROS-response motif obtained from the early growth response 1 (Egr-1) gene promoter. The activity of the chimeric promoter was largely dependent on variations in intracellular ROS levels and showed a high inducible response to exogenous H(2)O(2). Transient expression of the thymidine kinase (TK) gene driven by the chimeric promoter, followed by gancyclovir (GCV) administration, inhibited human colorectal cancer and melanoma cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, electrotransfer of the TK gene followed by GCV administration exerted a potent therapeutic effect on established tumors. This response was improved when combined with chemotherapeutic drugs. Thus, we show for the first time that a distinctive pro-oxidant state can be used to develop new selective gene therapeutics for cancer.

Selective radiosensitization by nitric oxide in tumor cell lines.

The radiosensitizing effect of nitric oxide (NO) on mouse and human tumor cells with different degrees of malignancy was evaluated. Cells pre-treated with the NO donor diethylenetriamine-NO (DETA-NO), were irradiated with gamma rays. Survival curves were obtained by clonogenicity and fitted to the linear-quadratic model. Results demonstrated an association between radiosensitization and degree of malignancy. The more malignant the cell line, the higher the degree of radiosensitization by DETA-NO. In conclusion, the differential radiosensitizing effect of DETA-NO shown here is of great interest for the potential use of NO in radiotherapy, due to an enhanced radiation effect on tumor vs. normal tissue.

Role of peroxidase inhibition by insulin in the bovine thyroid cell proliferation mechanism.

Monolayer primary cultures of thyroid cells produce, in the presence of insulin, a cytosolic inhibitor of thyroid peroxidase (TPO), lacto peroxidase (LPO), horseradish peroxidase (HRPO) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX). The inhibitor, localized in the cytosol, is thermostable and hydrophylic. Its molecular mass is less than 2 kDa. The inhibitory activity, resistant to proteolytic and nucleolytic enzymes, disappears with sodium metaperiodate treatment, as an oxidant of carbohydrates, supporting its oligosaccharide structure. The presence of inositol, mannose, glucose, the specific inhibition of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and the disappearance of peroxidase inhibition by alkaline phosphatase and alpha-mannosidase in purified samples confirms its chemical structure as inositol phosphoglycan-like. Purification by anionic interchange shows that the peroxidase inhibitor elutes like the two subtypes of inositol phosphoglycans (IPG)P and A, characterized as signal transducers of insulin action. Insulin significantly increases the concentration of the peroxidase inhibitor in a thyroid cell culture at 48 h. The addition of both isolated substances to a primary thyroid culture produces, after 30 min, a significant increase in hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration in the medium, concomitantly with the disappearance of the GPX activity in the same conditions. The presence of insulin or anyone of both products, during 48 h, induces cell proliferation of the thyroid cell culture. In conclusion, insulin stimulates thyroid cell division through the effect of a peroxidase inhibitor, as its second messenger. The inhibition of GPX by its action positively modulates the H2O2 level, which would produce, as was demonstrated by other authors, the signal for cell proliferation.

Imbalance of antioxidant enzymes in tumor cells and inhibition of proliferation and malignant features by scavenging hydrogen peroxide.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the endogenous alterations of the antioxidant enzymes in tumor cells and to specifically compensate the resulting changes in the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) to control the malignant growth. We determined and compared the activities of antioxidant enzymes and the levels of superoxide anion (O2*-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in tumor cell lines with different degrees of malignancy, paired with regard to their origin (PB/CH72T4, PDV/PDVC57, and HBL-100/MCF-7). An increase in superoxide dismutase activity and a decrease in the activities of H2O2-detoxifying enzymes, as a function of malignancy, coupled with a rise in H2O2 and a decrease in O2*- were demonstrated. Treatment of cells with exogenous catalase showed a dose-dependent inhibition of proliferation. This inhibition was also demonstrated in several cell lines of different tissue origin and species, suggesting a general role of H2O2 in cell proliferation. Moreover, stable expression of human catalase in MCF-7 cells inhibited proliferation and also reverted malignant features. We conclude that H2O2 played a crucial and general role in the regulation of proliferation and that an endogenous imbalance in antioxidant enzymes could be a relevant event in the carcinogenesis process.

Regulation of phospholipase C activation by the number of H(2) receptors during Ca(2+)-induced differentiation of mouse keratinocytes.

We have reported previously that the histamine H(2) receptor (H(2)R) can stimulate the phospholipase C (PLC) signaling pathway in mouse keratinocytes. In the present work, we examined the physiological mechanisms involved in this activation by studying histamine metabolism and H(2)R expression and coupling during mouse keratinocyte differentiation. Ca(2+)-induced differentiation decreased histidine decarboxylase (HDC) mRNA, the enzyme responsible for histamine synthesis, by 68.9+/-5.0%. Concomitantly, intracellular histamine content and its release into the extracellular medium were reduced significantly by 68.2+/-2.0 and 74.1+/-1.7%, respectively. Binding of [3H]tiotidine to H(2)Rs present on the surface of whole cells was also decreased by cellular differentiation [(18.17+/-2.1)x10(4) vs. (6.27+/-0.87)x10(4) sites/cell, undifferentiated and differentiated cells, respectively], without affecting H(2)R affinity. Northern blot and reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis of the H(2)R mRNA showed that the expression was also down-regulated at the transcriptional level. Moreover, the inhibition of H(2)R expression strongly affected the ability of the receptor to induce PLC activation. Our findings suggest that H(2)R signaling through the PLC second messenger system is inhibited during keratinocyte differentiation by an autocrine loop involving down-regulation of H(2)R expression and inhibition of histamine metabolism.