Physical Effort Exertion for Peer Feedback Reveals Evolving Social Motivations From Adolescence to Young Adulthood.

Peer relationships and social belonging are particularly important during adolescence. Using a willingness-to-work paradigm to quantify incentive motivation, we examined whether evaluative information holds unique value for adolescents. Participants (N = 102; 12-23 years old) rated peers, predicted how peers rated them, and exerted physical effort to view each peer's rating. We measured grip force, speed, and opt-out behavior to examine the motivational value of peer feedback, relative to money in a control condition, and to assess how peer desirability and participants' expectations modulated motivated effort across age. Overall, when compared with adolescents, adults were relatively less motivated for feedback than money. Whereas adults exerted less force and speed for feedback when expecting rejection, adolescents exerted greater force and speed when expecting to be more strongly liked or disliked. These findings suggest that the transition into adulthood is accompanied by a self-protective focus, whereas adolescents are motivated to consume highly informative feedback, even if negative.

How adolescents and adults translate motivational value to action: Age-related shifts in strategic physical effort exertion for monetary rewards.

Adults titrate the degree of physical effort they are willing to expend according to the magnitude of reward they expect to obtain, a process guided by incentive motivation. However, it remains unclear whether adolescents, who are undergoing normative developmental changes in cognitive and reward processing, translate incentive motivation into action in a way that is similarly tuned to reward value and economical in effort utilization. The present study adapted a classic physical effort paradigm to quantify age-related changes in motivation-based and strategic markers of effort exertion for monetary rewards from adolescence to early adulthood. One hundred three participants aged 12-23 years completed a task that involved exerting low or high amounts of physical effort, in the form of a hand grip, to earn low or high amounts of money. Adolescents and young adults exhibited highly similar incentive-modulated effort for reward according to measures of peak grip force and speed, suggesting that motivation for monetary reward is consistent across age. However, young adults expended energy more economically and strategically: Whereas adolescents were prone to exert excess physical effort beyond what was required to earn reward, young adults were more likely to strategically prepare before each grip phase and conserve energy by opting out of low reward trials. This work extends theoretical models of development of incentive-driven behavior by demonstrating that layered on similarity in motivational value for monetary reward, there are important differences in the way behavior is flexibly adjusted in the presence of reward from adolescence to young adulthood. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Older Adults' Perceptions of Their Fall Risk and Prevention Strategies After Transitioning from Hospital to Home.

Falls are common adverse events following hospital discharge. However, prevention programs are not tailored for older patients transitioning home. To inform development of transitional fall prevention programs, nine older adults designated as being at risk of falls during hospitalization who were recently discharged home were asked about their perceptions of fall risk and prevention, as well as their knowledge and opinion of materials from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Stopping Elderly Accidents, Deaths & Injuries Initiative. Using the constant comparative method, five themes were identified: Sedentary Behaviors and Limited Functioning; Prioritization of Social Involvement; Low Perceived Fall Risk and Attribution of Risk to External Factors; Avoidance and Caution as Fall Prevention; and Limited Falls Prevention Information During Transition from Hospital to Home. Limited awareness of and engagement in effective fall prevention may heighten recently discharged older adults' risks for falls. Prevention programs tailored to the post-discharge period may engage patients in fall prevention, promote well-being and independence, and link hospital and community efforts. [Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 45(1), 23-30.].

Consequences for peers differentially bias computations about risk across development.

Adolescents routinely take risks that impact the well-being of the friends they are with. However, it remains unclear when and how consequences for friends factor into decisions to take risks. Here we used an economic decision-making task to test whether risky choices are guided by the positive and negative consequences they promise for peers. Across a large developmental sample of participants ages 12-25, we show that risky decision computations increasingly assimilate friends' outcomes throughout adolescence into early adulthood in an asymmetric manner that overemphasizes protecting friends from incurring loss. Whereas adults accommodated friend outcomes to a greater degree when the friend was present and witnessing these choices, adolescents did so regardless of whether a friend could witness their decisions, highlighting the fundamentality of adolescent social motivations. By demonstrating that outcomes for another individual can powerfully tune an actor's risk tolerance, these results identify a key factor underlying peer-related motivations for risky behavior, with implications for the law and risk-prevention. (PsycINFO Database Record

Development of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback.

Adolescence is a developmental period marked by heightened attunement to social evaluation. While adults have been shown to enact self-protective processes to buffer their self-views from evaluative threats like peer rejection, it is unclear whether adolescents avail themselves of the same defenses. The present study examines how social evaluation shapes views of the self and others differently across development. N = 107 participants ages 10-23 completed a reciprocal social evaluation task that involved predicting and receiving peer acceptance and rejection feedback, along with assessments of self-views and likability ratings of peers. Here, we show that, despite equivalent experiences of social evaluation, adolescents internalized peer rejection, experiencing a feedback-induced drop in self-views, whereas adults externalized peer rejection, reporting a task-induced boost in self-views and deprecating the peers who rejected them. The results identify codeveloping processes underlying why peer rejection may lead to more dramatic alterations in self-views during adolescence than other phases of the lifespan.

Striatal Associative Learning Signals Are Tuned to In-groups.

An important feature of adaptive social behavior is the ability to flexibly modify future actions based on the successes or failures of past experiences. The ventral striatum (VS) occupies a central role in shaping behavior by using feedback to evaluate actions and guide learning. The current studies tested whether feedback indicating the need to update social knowledge would engage the VS, thereby facilitating subsequent learning. We also examined the sensitivity of these striatal signals to the value associated with social group membership. Across two fMRI studies, participants answered questions testing their knowledge about the preferences of personally relevant social groups who were high (in-group) or low (out-group) in social value. Participants received feedback indicating whether their responses were correct or incorrect on a trial-by-trial basis. After scanning, participants were given a surprise memory test examining memory for the different types of feedback. VS activity in response to social feedback correlated with subsequent memory, specifying a role for the VS in encoding and updating social knowledge. This effect was more robust in response to in-group than out-group feedback, indicating that the VS tracks variations in social value. These results provide novel evidence of a neurobiological mechanism adaptively tuned to the motivational relevance of the surrounding social environment that focuses learning efforts on the most valuable social outcomes and triggers adjustments in behavior when necessary.

Individual differences in response of dorsomedial prefrontal cortex predict daily social behavior.

The capacity to accurately infer the thoughts and intentions of other people is critical for effective social interaction, and neural activity in dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) has long been linked with the extent to which people engage in mental state attribution. In this study, we combined functional neuroimaging and experience sampling methodologies to test the predictive value of this neural response for daily social behaviors. We found that individuals who displayed greater activity in dmPFC when viewing social scenes spent more time around other people on a daily basis. These findings suggest a specific role for the neural mechanisms that support the capacity to mentalize in guiding individuals toward situations containing valuable social outcomes.

Social connection modulates perceptions of animacy.

Human survival depends on identifying targets potentially capable of engaging in meaningful social connection. Using sets of morphed images created from animate (human) and inanimate (doll) faces, we found converging evidence across two studies showing that the motivation to connect with other people systematically alters the interpretation of the physical features that signal that a face is alive. Specifically, in their efforts to find and connect with other social agents, individuals who feel socially disconnected actually decrease their thresholds for what it means to be alive, consistently observing animacy when fewer definitively human cues are present. From an evolutionary perspective, overattributing animacy may be an adaptive strategy that allows people to cast a wide net when identifying possible sources of social connection and maximize their opportunities to renew social relationships.

Rejection sensitivity polarizes striatal-medial prefrontal activity when anticipating social feedback.

As a social species, humans are acutely aware of cues that signal inclusionary status. This study characterizes behavioral and neural responses when individuals anticipate social feedback. Across two fMRI studies, participants (n = 42) made social judgments about supposed peers and then received feedback from those individuals. Of particular interest was the neural activity occurring when participants were awaiting social feedback. During this anticipatory period, increased neural activity was observed in the ventral striatum, a central component of the brain's reward circuitry, and dorsomedial pFC, a brain region implicated in mentalizing about others. Individuals high in rejection sensitivity exhibited greater responses in both the ventral striatum and dorsomedial pFC when anticipating positive feedback. These findings provide initial insight into the neural mechanisms involved in anticipating social evaluations as well as the cognitive processes that underlie rejection sensitivity.

Implicitly priming the social brain: failure to find neural effects.

Humans have a fundamental need for social relationships. Rejection from social groups is especially detrimental, rendering the ability to detect threats to social relationships and respond in adaptive ways critical. Indeed, previous research has shown that experiencing social rejection alters the processing of subsequent social cues in a variety of socially affiliative and avoidant ways. Because social perception and cognition occurs spontaneously and automatically, detecting threats to social relationships may occur without conscious awareness or control. Here, we investigated the automaticity of social threat detection by examining how implicit primes affect neural responses to social stimuli. However, despite using a well-established implicit priming paradigm and large sample size, we failed to find any evidence that implicit primes induced changes at the neural level. That implicit primes influence behavior has been demonstrated repeatedly and across a variety of domains, and our goal is not to question these effects. Rather, we offer the present study as cautionary evidence that such a paradigm may not be amenable to scanning in an fMRI environment.

Socially excluded individuals fail to recruit medial prefrontal cortex for negative social scenes.

Converging behavioral evidence suggests that people respond to experiences of social exclusion with both defensive and affiliative strategies, allowing them to avoid further distress while also encouraging re-establishment of positive social connections. However, there are unresolved questions regarding the cognitive mechanisms underlying people's responses to social exclusion. Here, we sought to gain insight into these behavioral tendencies by using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to examine the impact of social exclusion on neural responses to visual scenes that varied on dimensions of sociality and emotional valence. Compared to socially included participants, socially excluded participants failed to recruit dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), a brain region involved in mentalizing, for negative social scenes. Moreover, following social exclusion, dmPFC demonstrated a linear effect of valence, with greater activity to positive social scenes compared to negative social scenes. These results suggest that, following social exclusion, people display a preference for mentalizing about positive social information and tend to avoid negative aspects of their social world.

Characterizing socially avoidant and affiliative responses to social exclusion.

Humans have a fundamental need for social relationships. From an evolutionary standpoint, the drive to form social connections may have evolved as an adaptive mechanism to promote survival, as group membership afforded the benefits of shared resources and security. Thus, rejection from social groups is especially detrimental, rendering the ability to detect threats to social relationships and respond in adaptive ways critical. Previous research indicates that social exclusion alters cognition and behavior in specific ways that may initially appear contradictory. That is, although some studies have found that exclusionary social threats lead to withdrawal from the surrounding social world, other studies indicate that social exclusion motivates affiliative social behavior. Here, we review the existing evidence supporting accounts of avoidant and affiliative responses, and highlight the conditions under which both categories of responses may be simultaneously employed. Then, we review the neuroimaging research implicating specific brain regions underlying the ability to detect and adaptively respond to threats of social exclusion. Collectively, these findings are suggestive of neural system highly attuned to social context and capable of motivating flexible behavioral responses.