Sanctioning Sex Work: Examining Generational Differences and Attitudinal Correlates in Policy Preferences for Legalization.

Research on public perceptions of sex work in the United States (U.S.) has narrowly focused on street sex work, rather than including many other forms of sex work, such as sexual services provided online. With recent federal legislation aimed at addressing human trafficking (FOSTA-SESTA) facing criticism for harming sex workers, especially those who work in online spaces, examining policy preferences for a wide range of forms of sex work is necessary. Analyzing these preferences can help inform policy development that reflects the realities of sex work and protects sex workers' physical and economic health. Using a web-based survey of U.S. adults (N = 549), policy preferences were examined for the legalization and regulation of sex work. Thirteen forms of sex work were included, varying along dimensions of contact, space (in-person vs virtual), and entrepreneurship. Using a one-way analysis of variance, we examined generational differences in these attributions and found important age-related differences in both policy preferences and the reasons why respondents thought sex work should be illegal. We also addressed previously unexamined attitudinal correlates of these policy preferences using multivariate regression. We found that policy preferences for the illegality of sex work were negatively associated with attitudes toward abortion and positively associated with perceptions of government legitimacy. The findings of this study suggest that there are nuances in public opinion of sex work that are not currently reflected in U.S. policy, with generational differences indicating a shift away from criminalization.

Self-Defense and Police Reporting of Intimate Partner Violent Victimization: A Comparison of White, Black, and Hispanic Women Victims.

Although the use of self-defense is common in incidents of intimate partner violence (IPV), correlates of self-protective behaviors in IPV are less known. Furthermore, while research has examined the unintended consequence of dual arrest as a result of using self-defense in IPV incidents, research has not examined whether self-defense is associated with the likelihood of reporting the victimization to the police. The purpose of this study is to first examine the racial differences in the use of self-defense in incidents of IPV. Second, this study examines the relationship between the use of physical self-defense and formal help-seeking (i.e., calling the police) and whether those relationships vary across race/ethnicity for White, Black, and Hispanic women. Using a large nationally representative sample of IPV incidents in the United States, this study found that incidents with Black female victims were more likely to feature physical self-defense compared to incidents with White female victims. Furthermore, incidents with Black female victims were more likely to be reported to the police. There was a positive relationship between physical self-defense and reporting to the police for Black women and an inverse relationship between physical self-defense and reporting to the police for Hispanic women.

The Role of Perpetrator Tactics on Physical and Mental Health Outcomes Associated With Intimate Partner Sexual Violence: A Sex-Specific Analysis.

Intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) is a concerning, yet understudied form of intimate partner violence. Using data from the National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS), the current study builds on prior research to explore variation in tactics used to facilitate IPSV and their relationship with physical and mental health outcomes. Further, this study examines sex differences in both tactics and their associated health outcomes. Results show that all forms of IPSV are related to adverse health outcomes, with physical force being associated with the greatest number physical and mental health consequences. Women are more likely to report a greater number of negative physical health outcomes and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, while male IPSV victims are more likely to report overall worse mental health.

Gender Differences in the Relationship Between Sexual Activity and Dating Violence: The Role of Satisfaction, Jealousy, and Self-control.

While research has shown that sexual intercourse within a relationship is positively associated with physical intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration, particularly among young adults, whether well-known correlates of IPV moderate this relationship and whether these effects are gendered is less known. We draw on data from the International Dating Violence Study (2001-2006; n = 5,502) to more thoroughly explore sexual activity in a relationship on the risk for dating violence perpetration among college students in heterosexual relationships. First, the relationship between sexual activity and physical IPV is examined. Second, this study examines the role of sexual satisfaction/disagreement on IPV among sexually active participants as a potential mechanism by which sexual activity impacts IPV. Third, this study examines whether jealousy and self-control, two well-known correlates of IPV, moderate the relationship between sexual activity and IPV. For all analyses, gendered effects were examined. We found that sexual activity was positively related to overall and severe (i.e., potentially injurious) IPV perpetration and the effects were comparable between men and women. Likewise, although there was gender symmetry in the main effects of jealousy, results demonstrate that the interaction between intimacy and jealousy was gendered. Conversely, self-control was related to IPV comparably for men and women but did not moderate the effects of intimacy. Sexual satisfaction was unrelated to IPV perpetration for men and women, but women who report disagreement over frequency of intercourse reported higher offending. The theoretical implications of the current study are discussed as well as avenues for prevention and intervention programming, including collaborative, campus-based approaches to both violence prevention, healthy relationships, and sexual decision-making.

The Influence of Authority Role and Victim Gender on Perceptions of Female-Perpetrated Child Sexual Abuse.

Child sexual abuse is often perceived differently based on characteristics of the victim and the perpetrator. However, unknown is whether variations in perceptions occur when the relationship to and gender of the victim are manipulated-particularly when the offender is a woman. The current study sought to explore whether authority role (neighbor, teacher, family, or clergy) and victim gender affect perceived outcomes for the victim. A factorial vignette design was used to randomly assign participants to one of eight conditions, and a series of analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted to assess differences in perceived victim outcomes for the vignettes. Results showed significant differences for authority role, victim gender, and the interactions between authority and victim gender for nearly all dependent variables. Respondents recognized that the scenarios presented were damaging and harmful; however, certain authority positions (i.e., teachers) were sexualized leading to diminished perceptions of negative outcomes, particularly for male victims.

Neighborhood predictors of the gendered structure of non-lethal violent interactions.

Women are playing an increasing role in violent crime, both as offenders and victims. Yet, little research has examined how neighborhood structural characteristics might explain this involvement, or who women victimize relative to men. Drawing upon theories of social disorganization, strain, and a subculture of violence, we examine macro-level variation in the type and frequency of within and across group violence between men and women. Analyses are based on aggravated assaults and robberies reported to the Los Angeles Police Department between 2001 and 2007. Neighborhood disadvantage has a greater impact on women perpetrating violence against other women relative to any other sex dyad. Family structural variables are particularly important for understanding rates of within group robberies among women, and highlight that multiple measures of family structure are important for understanding gendered differences in rates of violent crime across dyads.

The Influence of Gender on Perceptions of Culpability and Victim Status in Statutory Rape Offenses Involving Teachers.

Perceptions of child sexual abuse and statutory rape vary based on the gender of the victim, the perpetrator, and the combination of both. We extend existing research to examine attributions of responsibility and punitive preferences for student victims in student-teacher sexual relationships contingent on the gender dyad of the student and teacher and the interaction between the gender dyad and respondent gender. Participants (N = 648) were randomly assigned to vignettes wherein the gender of the student and teacher were manipulated (female teacher/male student; female teacher/female student; male teacher/female student; male teacher/male student). Overall, respondents were "pro-victim," though results indicate significant differences in respondent gender and how the gender dyads were perceived. Students in the male same-sex dyads were attributed less responsibility than other students. Furthermore, men were less likely to perceive the student as a victim, and women were more likely to indicate the student should be punished.

Rape Myth Acceptance in Contemporary Times: A Comparative Study of University Students in India and the United Kingdom.

Much of the literature on rape, victim blaming, and rape myth acceptance is focused on the United States, and there is a general dearth of such scholarly activity in other countries. This article offers insights on university students' perspectives in two new country contexts-India and the United Kingdom. A total of 693 students contributed to the data collection for this study. Rape myth acceptance was fairly low for both countries, however, students in India were more likely to endorse rape myths. Several demographic characteristics were significant for rape myth acceptance in each country. This study makes an important contribution to the extant literature to address paucity of knowledge and promote understandings to help develop country-specific and appropriate policy, practice, and education and awareness programs. In particular, the study provides novel comparative findings on rape myth acceptance in new country contexts to help advance academic thinking in this area of work.

An Experimental Assessment of Third Parties as Potential Guardians: Victim Gender, Conflict, and Individual Perceptions of Social Situations.

The guardianship component of routine activity theory (RAT) remains underexamined. Recent research has emphasized "guardianship-in-action," or the processes by which individuals evaluate potentially problematic situations. Research has also begun to identify conditions conducive to bystander intervention in troublesome situations, but has not been incorporated into the emerging literature on guardianship-in-action. The current study integrates these literatures to understand how individuals perceive problematic social situations by examining how victims' gender influences guardians' perceptions of social situations and willingness to intervene across conflicts. Using an experimental vignette design, and a sample of 370 American adults, respondents were randomly assigned to vignettes involving verbal and physical conflicts between two men or a man and a woman. A series of t tests, chi-square tests, and McNemar's tests assessed mean differences in respondent perceptions. Situations in which victims are female were perceived as being more serious and requiring intervention. Situations involving interpersonal physical violence similarly elicit stronger concerns, and a greater willingness to intervene, from potential guardians. Theory and policy implications are discussed.

A Review of the Effects of the Violence Against Women Act on Law Enforcement.

One of the goals of the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) was to improve law enforcement responses to sexual and domestic violence by providing funding to expand prevention, enhance investigations, and increase victim services. Since VAWA's enactment, police responses to these crimes have evolved, including officer responses to victims and offenders, and various agency operations. This article highlights some noteworthy changes in law enforcement related to facilitating victim reporting, enhancing victim advocacy and services, crime reduction and investigative tools, supplementing personnel and training, and encouraging multiagency collaborations as a result of VAWA.

Structuring the Invisible War: Base and Community Influences on Military Sexual Assault Occurrence.

INTRODUCTION: This study examined the relationship between military sexual assault and structural factors including base (e.g., base density) and community (e.g., economic deprivation) characteristics. METHODS: Data on military sexual assault against men and women for fiscal years 2013-2016 were drawn from Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office's 2017 report, "Sexual Assault Received at Military Installations and Combat Areas of Interest." Base information was pulled from fiscal years 2012 and 2013 Department of Defense's Base Structure Reports. Community-level information was drawn from 5-year American Community Survey estimates (2008-2012). Analyses were conducted in 2019. Negative binomial models were used to examine predictors of military sexual assault. RESULTS: Compared with civilian personnel, higher concentrations of military personnel on bases increased military sexual assault (incident rate ratio=1.01, p=0.025). Compared with Air Force-controlled installations, Navy and Marine bases were associated with higher military sexual assault prevalence (incident rate ratio=2.22, p<0.001; incident rate ratio=2.38, p<0.001, respectively). Community economic disadvantage was inversely related to military sexual assault (incident rate ratio=0.69, p=0.001), whereas residential mobility (incident rate ratio=1.07, p=0.002), percentage of racial/ethnic minorities (incident rate ratio=1.02, p=0.024 black; incident rate ratio=1.03, p<0.001 Hispanic), and percentage of residents who are veterans (incident rate ratio=1.13, p<0.001) were positively related to military sexual assault. CONCLUSIONS: Military sexual assault prevalence is associated with the structural characteristics of military installations and characteristics of the communities in which these installations are located. Findings suggest that further research on structural predictors of military sexual assault is needed and prevention programs and services may benefit from more community engagement.

Social Learning Theory, Gender, and Intimate Partner Violent Victimization: A Structural Equations Approach.

The purpose of this study is to examine the applicability of Akers's Social Learning Theory (SLT) to explain intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization. In doing so, we draw on the Intergenerational Transmission of Violence Theory (IGT) to extend the scope of SLT to the explanation of victimization and for a consideration of uniquely gendered pathways in its causal structure. Using a structural equation modeling approach with self-report data from a sample of college students, the present study tests the extent to which SLT can effectively explain and predict IPV victimization and the degree, if any, to which the social learning model is gender invariant. Although our findings are largely supportive of SLT and, thus, affirm its extension to victimization as well as perpetration, the findings are also somewhat mixed. More significantly, in line with IGT literature, we find that the social learning process is not gender invariant. The implications of the latter are discussed.

Risk Factors for Absconding Among Adult Parolees in Colorado.

Studies that have examined absconding have pointed to the relevance of factors related to demographics, situational, and social characteristics, as well as criminal history variables as predictive of offenders' decision to abscond. This study contributes to this literature by extending factors that have been explored for criminal justice outcomes such as recidivism to predict the likelihood of absconding. In particular, this study incorporates the Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R) risk assessment instrument and types of violations to examine their impact on the likelihood of absconding. Using a large sample of parolees from Colorado ( n = 30,181), the findings in this study indicate that the largest predictors of absconding were substance abuse problems and education. In addition, variables measuring the components of the LSI-R and specific nonabsconding parole violations moderately predict absconding. The implications of the findings and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Bar Training for Active Bystanders: Evaluation of a Community-Based Bystander Intervention Program.

Bystander intervention programs are proliferating on college campuses and are slowly gaining momentum as sexual violence prevention programs suitable for the larger community. In particular, bystander intervention programs aimed at bar staff have been developed in a number of locations. This study entails the exploratory evaluation of a community-based bystander program for bar staff. Using a pre-posttest design, this study suggests that evidence surrounding the effectiveness of this program is promising as it decreases rape myths, decreases barriers to intervention, and increases bartenders willingness to intervene. Future research and policy implications are discussed.

An Evaluation of Two Dating Violence Prevention Programs on a College Campus.

Dating violence is a serious and prevalent public health problem that is associated with numerous negative physical and psychological health outcomes, and yet there has been limited evaluation of prevention programs on college campuses. A recent innovation in campus prevention focuses on mobilizing bystanders to take action. To date, bystander programs have mainly been compared with no treatment control groups raising questions about what value is added to dating violence prevention by focusing on bystanders. This study compared a single 90-min bystander education program for dating violence prevention with a traditional awareness education program, as well as with a no education control group. Using a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test design with follow-up at 2 months, a sample of predominately freshmen college students was randomized to either the bystander ( n = 369) or traditional awareness ( n = 376) dating violence education program. A non-randomized control group of freshmen students who did not receive any education were also surveyed ( n = 224). Students completed measures of attitudes, including rape myth acceptance, bystander efficacy, and intent to help as well as behavioral measures related to bystander action and victimization. Results showed that the bystander education program was more effective at changing attitudes, beliefs, efficacy, intentions, and self-reported behaviors compared with the traditional awareness education program. Both programs were significantly more effective than no education. The findings of this study have important implications for future dating violence prevention educational programming, emphasizing the value of bystander education programs for primary dating violence prevention among college students.

Childhood Physical Maltreatment and Young Adult Dating Violence: A Propensity Matching Approach.

Intimate partner violence disproportionately occurs among young adults and relates to a range of health and behavioral problems throughout the life course. Although numerous studies substantiate the prevailing cycle of violence perspective, methodological limitations in prior research prohibit the conclusion of a causal relationship between childhood physical maltreatment and dating violence perpetration and victimization in young adulthood. The current research applies a quasi-experimental propensity score matching approach to a large sample of young adults ( n = 4,168) to isolate the causal effect of childhood physical maltreatment on dating violence perpetration and victimization. Results suggest selection bias accounts for the correlation between childhood physical maltreatment and young adult physical dating violence perpetration and victimization, indicating a spurious relationship-before matching: odds ratio (OR) = 1.38, p < .001; OR = 1.35, p < .001; after matching: OR = 1.08; p = .379; OR = 1.09; p = .297. Study limitations and implications are discussed.

"Yeah, We Serve Alcohol, but We Are Here to Help": A Qualitative Analysis of Bar Staff's Perceptions of Sexual Violence.

This study is an exploratory analysis of how bar staff perceive their role in preventing sexual harassment and assault. In particular, through qualitative focus group interviews, this study explores bar staff's attitudes surrounding sexual harassment/assault, how they currently handle these situations, and their opinions regarding programs and policies that currently mandate responsibility. Six major themes emerged including their hesitation to discuss sexual violence, their unique position as a service provider, their lack of knowledge (but eagerness to learn), and their reliance on stereotypical scenarios of sexual violence and interventions. These findings are situated in a framework for understanding barriers to bystander intervention and implications for community-based bystander programs are discussed.

Consequences of Using Self-Protective Behaviors in Nonsexual Assaults: The Differential Risk of Completion and Injury by Victim Sex.

This study examines the consequences of using self-protective behaviors in nonsexual assaults. Particular attention is paid to how victim sex modifies conclusions regarding the effectiveness of countermeasures as completion or injury avoidance strategies. These relationships are tested using 16,309 incidents of nonsexual assaults from the National Crime Victimization Survey. Several outcomes of violent encounters (i.e., completion, injury, injury severity) are regressed on measures of self-protective behaviors through a sequence of logistic regressions. Interactions between victim sex and self-protective behavior are also estimated. Forceful physical strategies are associated with a greater probability of assault completion and injury. Conversely, nonforceful verbal strategies serve as protective factors for both completion and injury and nonforceful physical strategies are associated with a lower probability of injury. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the effectiveness of these countermeasures varies by the sex of the victim.

The role of economic factors on women's risk for intimate partner violence: a cross-national comparison of Canada and the United States.

National data from Canada and the United States are used to examine the connection between women's economic contributions to the family and their risk for physical and emotional abuse. Analyses show that American women are at a twofold greater risk; however, the relationship between economic variables and the risk of both physical violence and coercive control are more complex. Income serves to reduce the risk of both violence and coercive control for both Canadian and American women, whereas education serves as a clear protective factor for American women, but does not provide the same benefit for Canadian women.

Exploring the relationship between child physical abuse and adult dating violence using a causal inference approach in an emerging adult population in South Korea.

Child maltreatment is one of the most commonly examined risk factors for violence in dating relationships. Often referred to as the intergenerational transmission of violence or cycle of violence, a fair amount of research suggests that experiencing abuse during childhood significantly increases the likelihood of involvement in violent relationships later, but these conclusions are primarily based on correlational research designs. Furthermore, the majority of research linking childhood maltreatment and dating violence has focused on samples of young people from the United States. Considering these limitations, the current study uses a rigorous, propensity score matching approach to estimate the causal effect of experiencing child physical abuse on adult dating violence among a large sample of South Korean emerging adults. Results indicate that the link between child physical abuse and adult dating violence is spurious rather than causal. Study limitations and implications are discussed.