Interdisciplinary consensus statements on imaging of DRUJ instability and TFCC injuries.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this agreement was to establish evidence-based consensus statements on imaging of distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) instability and triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) injuries by an expert group using the Delphi technique. METHODS: Nineteen hand surgeons developed a preliminary list of questions on DRUJ instability and TFCC injuries. Radiologists created statements based on the literature and the authors' clinical experience. Questions and statements were revised during three iterative Delphi rounds. Delphi panelists consisted of twenty-seven musculoskeletal radiologists. The panelists scored their degree of agreement to each statement on an 11-item numeric scale. Scores of "0," "5," and "10" reflected complete disagreement, indeterminate agreement, and complete agreement, respectively. Group consensus was defined as a score of "8" or higher for 80% or more of the panelists. RESULTS: Three of fourteen statements achieved group consensus in the first Delphi round and ten statements achieved group consensus in the second Delphi round. The third and final Delphi round was limited to the one question that did not achieve group consensus in the previous rounds. CONCLUSIONS: Delphi-based agreements suggest that CT with static axial slices in neutral rotation, pronation, and supination is the most useful and accurate imaging technique for the work-up of DRUJ instability. MRI is the most valuable technique in the diagnosis of TFCC lesions. The main indication for MR arthrography and CT arthrography are Palmer 1B foveal lesions of the TFCC. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: MRI is the method of choice for assessing TFCC lesions, with higher accuracy for central than peripheral abnormalities. The main indication for MR arthrography is the evaluation of TFCC foveal insertion lesions and peripheral non-Palmer injuries. KEY POINTS: • Conventional radiography should be the initial imaging technique in the assessment of DRUJ instability. CT with static axial slices in neutral rotation, pronation, and supination is the most accurate method for evaluating DRUJ instability. • MRI is the most useful technique in diagnosing soft-tissue injuries causing DRUJ instability, especially TFCC lesions. • The main indications for MR arthrography and CT arthrography are foveal lesions of the TFCC.

Interdisciplinary consensus statements on imaging of scapholunate joint instability.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this agreement was to establish evidence-based consensus statements on imaging of scapholunate joint (SLJ) instability by an expert group using the Delphi technique. METHODS: Nineteen hand surgeons developed a preliminary list of questions on SLJ instability. Radiologists created statements based on the literature and the authors' clinical experience. Questions and statements were revised during three iterative Delphi rounds. Delphi panellists consisted of twenty-seven musculoskeletal radiologists. The panellists scored their degree of agreement to each statement on an eleven-item numeric scale. Scores of '0', '5' and '10' reflected complete disagreement, indeterminate agreement and complete agreement, respectively. Group consensus was defined as a score of '8' or higher for 80% or more of the panellists. RESULTS: Ten of fifteen statements achieved group consensus in the second Delphi round. The remaining five statements achieved group consensus in the third Delphi round. It was agreed that dorsopalmar and lateral radiographs should be acquired as routine imaging work-up in patients with suspected SLJ instability. Radiographic stress views and dynamic fluoroscopy allow accurate diagnosis of dynamic SLJ instability. MR arthrography and CT arthrography are accurate for detecting scapholunate interosseous ligament tears and articular cartilage defects. Ultrasonography and MRI can delineate most extrinsic carpal ligaments, although validated scientific evidence on accurate differentiation between partially or completely torn or incompetent ligaments is not available. CONCLUSIONS: Delphi-based agreements suggest that standardized radiographs, radiographic stress views, dynamic fluoroscopy, MR arthrography and CT arthrography are the most useful and accurate imaging techniques for the work-up of SLJ instability. KEY POINTS: • Dorsopalmar and lateral wrist radiographs remain the basic imaging modality for routine imaging work-up in patients with suspected scapholunate joint instability. • Radiographic stress views and dynamic fluoroscopy of the wrist allow accurate diagnosis of dynamic scapholunate joint instability. • Wrist MR arthrography and CT arthrography are accurate for determination of scapholunate interosseous ligament tears and cartilage defects.

Conventional Radiography and Ultrasound Imaging of Rheumatic Diseases Affecting the Pediatric Population.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis is the most frequent rheumatic disease in the pediatric population, followed by systemic lupus erythematosus, juvenile scleroderma syndromes, juvenile dermatomyositis, chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis, and juvenile vasculopathies. The imaging approach to inflammatory connective tissue diseases in childhood has not changed dramatically over the last decade, with radiographs still the leading method for bony pathology assessment, disease monitoring, and evaluation of growth disturbances. Ultrasonography is commonly used for early detection of alterations within the intra- and periarticular soft tissues, assessing their advancement and also disease monitoring. It offers several advantages in young patients including nonionizing radiation exposure, short examination time, and high resolution, allowing a detailed evaluation of the musculoskeletal system for the features of arthritis, tenosynovitis, enthesitis, bursitis, myositis, as well as pathologies of the skin, subdermis, vessels, and fasciae. In this pictorial essay we discuss radiographic and ultrasound inflammatory features of autoimmune pediatric inflammatory arthropathies: juvenile idiopathic arthritis, lupus erythematosus, juvenile scleroderma, juvenile dermatomyositis and polymyositis.

Apparent diffusion coefficient as an indicator of spinal cord compression due to anterior atlanto-axial subluxation in rheumatoid arthritis patients.

PURPOSE: The aim of this retrospective study was to evaluate the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) as a potential parameter of spinal cord damage in cervical spine instability at the atlanto-axial level in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. METHODS: One hundred and six RA patients were included in the study. MRI examinations were performed with 1.5T scanner. The ADC was measured at six locations in the cervical spinal cord at the height of the first six cervical vertebrae (from C-1 to C-6). The ADC values were assessed in 2 groups: with and without anterior atlanto-axial subluxation (AAS) diagnosed on plain radiographs. Correlations between ADC values and radiographic measurements and RA activity indicators were evaluated. RESULTS: The ADC values at C1 level (ADC1) was higher in the group with anterior AAS than in the group without AAS (p < 0.001). Statistically significant moderate positive correlation between ADC1 and anterior atlanto-axial diameter interval AADI (rho = 0.58; p < 0.008) was found as well as statistically significant weak negative correlation between ADC1 and posterior atlanto-axial diameter interval PADI (rho = - 0.34; p < 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: The conducted study demonstrates the applicability of the ADC maps in the identification of spinal cord compression due to anterior AAS in RA patients. The results encourage the practical use of the ADC as an additional parameter in the qualification for surgical treatment. These slides can be retrieved under Electronic Supplementary Material.

Imaging of juvenile idiopathic arthritis. Part II: Ultrasonography and MRI.

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis is the most common autoimmune systemic disease of the connective tissue affecting individuals in the developmental age. Radiography, which was described in the first part of this publication, is the standard modality in the assessment of this condition. Ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging enable early detection of the disease which affects soft tissues, as well as bones. Ultrasound assessment involves: joint cavities, tendon sheaths and bursae for the presence of synovitis, intraand extraarticular fat tissue to visualize signs of inflammation, hyaline cartilage, cartilaginous epiphysis and subchondral bone to detect cysts and erosions, and ligaments, tendons and their entheses for signs of enthesopathies and tendinopathies. Magnetic resonance imaging is indicated in children with juvenile idiopathic arthritis for assessment of inflammation in peripheral joints, tendon sheaths and bursae, bone marrow involvement and identification of inflammatory lesions in whole-body MRI, particularly when the clinical picture is unclear. Also, MRI of the spine and spinal cord is used in order to diagnose synovial joint inflammation, bone marrow edema and spondylodiscitis as well as to assess their activity, location, and complications (spinal canal stenosis, subluxation, e.g. in the atlantoaxial region). This article discusses typical pathological changes seen on ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging. The role of these two methods for disease monitoring, its identification in the pre-clinical stage and establishing its remission are also highlighted.

Diagnostic imaging of psoriatic arthritis. Part II: magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography.

Plain radiography reveals specific, yet late changes of advanced psoriatic arthritis. Early inflammatory changes are seen both on magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound within peripheral joints (arthritis, synovitis), tendons sheaths (tenosynovitis, tendovaginitis) and entheses (enthesitis, enthesopathy). In addition, magnetic resonance imaging enables the assessment of inflammatory features in the sacroiliac joints (sacroiliitis), and the spine (spondylitis). In this article, we review current opinions on the diagnostics of some selective, and distinctive features of psoriatic arthritis concerning magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasound and present some hypotheses on psoriatic arthritis etiopathogenesis, which have been studied with the use of magnetic resonance imaging. The following elements of the psoriatic arthritis are discussed: enthesitis, extracapsular inflammation, dactylitis, distal interphalangeal joint and nail disease, and the ability of magnetic resonance imaging to differentiate undifferentiated arthritis, the value of whole-body magnetic resonance imaging and dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging.

Role of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of rheumatic diseases in light of ACR/EULAR guidelines.

In the past years, ultrasound imaging has become an integral element of the diagnostic process in rheumatic diseases. It enables the identification of a range of inflammatory changes in joint cavities, sheaths and bursae, and allows their activity to be assessed. In 2012, experts of the European Society of Musculoskeletal Radiology prepared recommendations concerning the role of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of musculoskeletal diseases. Ultrasound was considered the method of choice in imaging peripheral synovitis. Moreover, ultrasound imaging has been popularized thanks to the new classification criteria for rheumatoid arthritis issued by the American College of Rheumatology and European League Against Rheumatism in 2010. They underline the role of ultrasound imaging in the detection of articular inflammatory changes that are difficult to assess unambiguously in the clinical examination. These criteria have become the basis for recommendations prepared by experts from the European League Against Rheumatism concerning medical imaging in rheumatoid arthritis. Nine of ten recommendations concern ultrasonography which is relevant in detecting diseases, predicting their progression and treatment response, monitoring disease activity and identifying remission. In the new criteria concerning polymyalgia rheumatica from 2012, an ultrasound scan of the shoulder and pelvic girdle was considered an alternative to clinical assessment. Moreover, the relevance of ultrasonography in the diagnosis and monitoring of peripheral spondyloarthropathies was widely discussed in 2014 during the meeting of the European League Against Rheumatism in Paris.

Diagnostic imaging of psoriatic arthritis. Part I: etiopathogenesis, classifications and radiographic features.

Psoriatic arthritis is one of the spondyloarthritis. It is a disease of clinical heterogenicity, which may affect peripheral joints, as well as axial spine, with presence of inflammatory lesions in soft tissue, in a form of dactylitis and enthesopathy. Plain radiography remains the basic imaging modality for PsA diagnosis, although early inflammatory changes affecting soft tissue and bone marrow cannot be detected with its use, or the image is indistinctive. Typical radiographic features of PsA occur in an advanced disease, mainly within the synovial joints, but also in fibrocartilaginous joints, such as sacroiliac joints, and additionally in entheses of tendons and ligaments. Moll and Wright classified PsA into 5 subtypes: asymmetric oligoarthritis, symmetric polyarthritis, arthritis mutilans, distal interphalangeal arthritis of the hands and feet and spinal column involvement. In this part of the paper we discuss radiographic features of the disease. The next one will address magnetic resonance imaging and ultrasonography.

Selected issues in diagnostic imaging of spondyloarthritides: psoriatic arthritis and juvenile spondyloarthritis.

Spondyloarthritides (also known as spondyloarthropathies) are a group of rheumatic diseases that consists of diversified entities, i.e. ankylosing spondylitis, reactive arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, arthritis in the course of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, and juvenile spondyloarthropathies. In the diagnostics of spondyloarthritides, plain radiography has played a crucial role for years due to its undisputed ability to show distinctive bony changes. Yet as those diseases often manifest themselves by soft tissue pathology and bone marrow inflammation, ultrasonography and magnetic resonance imaging are currently a subject of numerous studies in the quest for setting up diagnostic criteria, especially at early stages of inflammatory processes. In our review, we present an up-to-date insight into classifications, etiopathogenesis and imaging of psoriatic arthritis and juvenile spondyloarthritis.

Enthesopathies and enthesitis. Part 2: Imaging studies.

The pathologies of tendon and ligament attachments are called enthesopathies. Enthesitis is one of enthesopathies and it is considered a characteristic sign of rheumatic diseases from the spondyloarthritis group, including peripheral spondyloarthritis. Therefore, enthesitis has been included in a number of clinical classifications for diagnosing these diseases. Clinical diagnosis of enthesitis is based on rather non-specific clinical signs and results of laboratory tests. It is believed that imaging examinations might improve diagnosis, particularly because numerous papers prove that differentiating enthesitis from other enthesopathic processes is possible. On the other hand, a number of authors report the lack of specific signs in imaging as well as typical histological and immunological features that would enable confirmation of clinical diagnosis of enthesitis. The first part of the publication presented theories on the etiopathogenesis of enthesitis (inflammatory, mechanical, autoimmune and associated with the synovio-entheseal complex) as well as on the formation of enthesophytes (inflammatory, molecular and mechanical). This paper - the second part of the article, is a review of the state-of-the-art on the ability of imaging examinations to diagnose enthesitis. It turns out that none of the enthesitis criteria used in imaging examinations is specific for inflammation. As enthesitis may be the only symptom of early spondyloarthritis (particularly in patients with absent HLA-B27 antigen), the lack of its unambiguous picture in ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging prompts the search for other signs characteristic of spondyloarthritis and more specific features in imaging in order to make a diagnosis as early as possible.

The value of ultrasound in the diagnosis of limited scleroderma - a case report.

Systemic sclerosis, popularly referred to as scleroderma, is a chronic connective tissue disease with present autoantibodies against platelet-derived growth factor receptor. These antibodies activate directly fibroblasts causing the dermis and internal organs' fibrosis and vascular damage. Additionally, calcific collections, including hydroxyapatite crystals, may develop in subcutaneous tissue and juxta-articular soft tissue. Herein, we report a case of a 72-year-old woman, referred by a rheumatologist for plain radiography and ultrasound examination of hands due to pain and swelling of the fourth finger of the left hand. Dermal induration affecting hands, especially fourth finger on the left side and the Raynaud phenomenon were observed on physical examination. Furthermore, the patient had noticed periodic discharge with a toothpaste consistency from a tiny fistula localised in the vicinity of the fourth finger alterations. The paper emphasises a possible application of the twinkling artefact and MicroPure option on ultrasound examination in differential diagnosis of soft tissue calcifications. Making the correct diagnosis can attribute to precise planning of surgical treatment.

Radial sesamoid fracture of the second MCP joint - a case report.

A fracture of the sesamoid bone of the hand is rarely seen. In most cases, it is strictly associated with the trauma. The patient complains of a long-lasting, due to unclear diagnosis, painful swelling of the joint with an inability to flex the affected finger. Limited blood supply makes the untreated fracture prone to avascular necrosis. Thus, it is extremely important to make a proper diagnosis early. Bilateral comparing the affected areas with ultrasonography seems to be the method of choice. The treatment is conservative or surgical when needed. We present a case of a radial sesamoid fracture of the second metacarpophalangeal joint without a history of trauma.

Endosonography and magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of high anal fistulae - a comparison.

Anal fistula is a benign inflammatory disease with unclear etiology which develops in approximately 10 in 100 000 adult patients. Surgical treatment of fistulae is associated with a risk of damaging anal sphincters. This usually happens in treating high fistulae, branched fistulae, and anterior ones in females. In preoperative diagnosis of anal fistulae, endosonography and magnetic resonance imaging play a significant role in planning the surgical technique. The majority of fistulae are diagnosed in endosonography, but magnetic resonance is performed when the presence of high fistulae, particularly branched ones, and recurrent is suspected. THE AIM OF THIS PAPER: The aim of this paper was to compare the roles of the two examinations in preoperative assessment of high anal fistulae. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The results of endosonographic and magnetic resonance examinations performed in 2011-2012 in 14 patients (4 women and 10 men) with high anal fistulae diagnosed intraoperatively were subject to a retrospective analysis. The patients were aged from 23 to 66 (mean 47). The endosonographic examinations were performed with the use of a BK Medical Pro Focus system with endorectal 3D transducers with the frequency of 16 MHz. The magnetic resonance scans were performed using a Siemens Avanto 1.5 T scanner with a surface coil in T1, T1FS, FLAIR, T2 sequences and in T1 following contrast medium administration. The sensitivity and specificity of endosonography and magnetic resonance imaging were analyzed. A surgical treatment served as a method for verification. The agreement of each method with the surgery and the agreement of endosonography and magnetic resonance imaging were compared in terms of the assessment of the fistula type, localization of its internal opening and branches. The agreement level was determined based on the percentage of consistent assessments and Cohen's coefficient of agreement, κ. The integrity of the anal sphincters was assessed in each case. RESULTS: In determining the fistula type, magnetic resonance imaging agreed with intraoperative assessment in 79% of cases, and endosonography in 64% of cases. Endosonography agreed with magnetic resonance in 57% of cases. In the assessment of internal opening, the agreement between endosonography and intraoperative assessment was 65%, between magnetic resonance and intraoperative assessment - 41% and between endosonography and magnetic resonance - 53%. In the assessment of fistula branches, endosonography agreed with intraoperative assessment in 67% of cases, magnetic resonance in 87% of cases, and the agreement between the two methods tested was 67%. CONCLUSIONS: Magnetic resonance is a more accurate method than endosonography in determining the type of high fistulae and the presence of branches. In assessing the internal opening, endosonography proved more accurate. The agreement between the two methods ranges from 53-67%; the highest level of agreement was noted for the assessment of branching.