Pellino-1 Regulates the Responses of the Airway to Viral Infection.

Exposure to respiratory pathogens is a leading cause of exacerbations of airway diseases such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Pellino-1 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase known to regulate virally-induced inflammation. We wished to determine the role of Pellino-1 in the host response to respiratory viruses in health and disease. Pellino-1 expression was examined in bronchial sections from patients with GOLD stage two COPD and healthy controls. Primary bronchial epithelial cells (PBECs) in which Pellino-1 expression had been knocked down were extracellularly challenged with the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C). C57BL/6 Peli1-/- mice and wild type littermates were subjected to intranasal infection with clinically-relevant respiratory viruses: rhinovirus (RV1B) and influenza A. We found that Pellino-1 is expressed in the airways of normal subjects and those with COPD, and that Pellino-1 regulates TLR3 signaling and responses to airways viruses. In particular we observed that knockout of Pellino-1 in the murine lung resulted in increased production of proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNFα upon viral infection, accompanied by enhanced recruitment of immune cells to the airways, without any change in viral replication. Pellino-1 therefore regulates inflammatory airway responses without altering replication of respiratory viruses.

NR4A orphan nuclear receptor family members, NR4A2 and NR4A3, regulate neutrophil number and survival.

The lifespan of neutrophils is plastic and highly responsive to factors that regulate cellular survival. Defects in neutrophil number and survival are common to both hematologic disorders and chronic inflammatory diseases. At sites of inflammation, neutrophils respond to multiple signals that activate protein kinase A (PKA) signaling, which positively regulates neutrophil survival. The aim of this study was to define transcriptional responses to PKA activation and to delineate the roles of these factors in neutrophil function and survival. In human neutrophil gene array studies, we show that PKA activation upregulates a significant number of apoptosis-related genes, the most highly regulated of these being NR4A2 and NR4A3 Direct PKA activation by the site-selective PKA agonist pair N6/8-AHA (8-AHA-cAMP and N6-MB-cAMP) and treatment with endogenous activators of PKA, including adenosine and prostaglandin E2, results in a profound delay of neutrophil apoptosis and concomitant upregulation of NR4A2/3 in a PKA-dependent manner. NR4A3 expression is also increased at sites of neutrophilic inflammation in a human model of intradermal inflammation. PKA activation also promotes survival of murine neutrophil progenitor cells, and small interfering RNA to NR4A2 decreases neutrophil production in this model. Antisense knockdown of NR4A2 and NR4A3 homologs in zebrafish larvae significantly reduces the absolute neutrophil number without affecting cellular migration. In summary, we show that NR4A2 and NR4A3 are components of a downstream transcriptional response to PKA activation in the neutrophil, and that they positively regulate neutrophil survival and homeostasis.

Phosphoinositide-3 kinase inhibition modulates responses to rhinovirus by mechanisms that are predominantly independent of autophagy.

Human rhinoviruses (HRV) are a major cause of exacerbations of airways disease. Aspects of cell signalling responses to HRV infection remain unclear, particularly with regard to signalling via PI3K, and the PI3K-dependent pathway, autophagy. We investigated the roles of PI3K and autophagy in the responses of epithelial cells to major and minor group HRV infection. The PI3K inhibitor 3-MA, commonly used to inhibit autophagy, markedly reduced HRV-induced cytokine induction. Further investigation of potential targets of 3-MA and comparison of results using this inhibitor to a panel of general and class I-selective PI3K inhibitors showed that several PI3Ks cooperatively regulate responses to HRV. Targeting by siRNA of the autophagy proteins Beclin-1, Atg7, LC3, alone or in combination, or targeting of the autophagy-specific class III PI3K had at most only modest effects on HRV-induced cell signalling as judged by induction of proinflammatory cytokine production. Our data indicate that PI3K and mTOR are involved in induction of proinflammatory cytokines after HRV infection, and that autophagy has little role in the cytokine response to HRV or control of HRV replication.

Roles of neutrophils in the regulation of the extent of human inflammation through delivery of IL-1 and clearance of chemokines.

This study examined the establishment of neutrophilic inflammation in humans. We tested the hypotheses that neutrophil recruitment was associated with local CXCL8 production and that neutrophils themselves might contribute to the regulation of the size of the inflammatory response. Humans were challenged i.d. with endotoxin. Biopsies of these sites were examined for cytokine production and leukocyte recruitment by qPCR and IHC. Additional in vitro models of inflammation examined the ability of neutrophils to produce and sequester cytokines relevant to neutrophilic inflammation. i.d. challenge with 15 ng of a TLR4-selective endotoxin caused a local inflammatory response, in which 1% of the total biopsy area stained positive for neutrophils at 6 h, correlating with 100-fold up-regulation in local CXCL8 mRNA generation. Neutrophils themselves were the major source of the early cytokine IL-1ß. In vitro, neutrophils mediated CXCL8 but not IL-1ß clearance (>90% clearance of ≤2 nM CXCL8 over 24 h). CXCL8 clearance was at least partially receptor-dependent and modified by inflammatory context, preserved in models of viral infection but reduced in models of bacterial infection. In conclusion, in a human inflammatory model, neutrophils are rapidly recruited and may regulate the size and outcome of the inflammatory response through the uptake and release of cytokines and chemokines in patterns dependent on the underlying inflammatory stimulus.

Pathways regulating lipopolysaccharide-induced neutrophil survival revealed by lentiviral transduction of primary human neutrophils.

Human neutrophils express Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) at low levels, and the role of this receptor in neutrophil responses to microbial stimuli has been questioned. Genetic manipulation of these cells to enable the study of the role of proteins such as TLR4 in their function is challenging. Here, we show that primary human neutrophils rapidly express novel proteins such as enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) after transduction with lentivirus. Stimulation of transduced neutrophils with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) resulted in increased cell survival, which was inhibited when neutrophils were transduced with a lentivirus encoding a dominant negative (dn) TLR4 protein. LPS-induced survival was also inhibited by lentiviruses encoding dnMyD88 or a truncated TRIF (Toll/interleukin-1R homologous domain-containing adapter protein inducing interferon-beta) molecule, whilst, in contrast, neutrophil survival was enhanced by overexpression of kinase-mutated interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (kmIRAK-1), which activated nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB. These studies provide proof of the role of TLR4 in human neutrophil biology, have begun to elucidate TLR-dependent pathways regulating neutrophil survival, and demonstrate that neutrophils can be genetically manipulated to enhance or inhibit survival.

A phosphatidylserine species inhibits a range of TLR- but not IL-1beta-induced inflammatory responses by disruption of membrane microdomains.

TLRs detect conserved molecular patterns that are unique to microbes, enabling tailored responses to invading pathogens and modulating a multitude of immunopathological conditions. We investigated the ability of a naturally occurring stearoyl-arachidonoyl form of phosphatidylserine (SAPS) to inhibit the proinflammatory effects of TLR agonists in models of inflammation investigating the interaction of leukocytes with epithelial and endothelial cells. The responses to LPS of both epithelial and endothelial cells were highly amplified in the presence of PBMCs. Coincubation with SAPS markedly inhibited activation of cocultures by LPS, principally through inhibition of the TLR4 signaling pathway in PBMCs; however, this was not through downmodulation of TLR4 or coreceptor expression, nor was IL-1beta-induced cytokine release affected. SAPS also impaired Pam(3)CSK(4) (TLR2/1), Gardiquimod (TLR7/8), and Streptococcus pneumoniae-induced cytokine release, but had only modest effects on poly(I:C) (TLR3)-induced responses. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer analysis of molecular associations revealed that SAPS disrupted the association of both TLR4 and TLR2 with their respective membrane partners that are required for signaling. Thus, our data reinforce the existence and importance of cooperative networks of TLRs, tissue cells, and leukocytes in mediating innate immunity, and identify a novel disrupter of membrane microdomains, revealing the dependence of TLR signaling on localization within these domains.