Effect of comprehensive smoke-free legislation on the tourism industry in countries of the Caribbean Community.

Objective: To assess whether the introduction of comprehensive smoke-free legislation affected tourism in four Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries - Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. Methods: We compared the evolution of three tourism variables - tourist arrivals, tourist expenditure, and average length of stay - in a country implementing smoke-free environments (treated country) with the evolution of these variables in the same country if smoke-free legislation had not been implemented. We used a synthetic control method to recreate this counterfactual scenario by constructing a synthetic country using a weighted average of several donor-pool CARICOM countries that did not introduce legislation on smoke-free environments during the period analyzed. We quantified the effect of the smoke-free environments on tourism as the difference between tourism variables in the treated and synthetic country. To assess whether the estimated effect of the smoke-free environments was the result of chance, we compared the effects of legislation in the treated country to placebo effects in the donor pool by assuming comprehensive smoke-free legislation was introduced in the same year as in the treated country. Results: Implementing smoke-free environments did not affect the arrival of tourists, tourism expenditure, or the average length of stay in the four countries. Conclusions: Our findings provide strong evidence that public policies banning smoking in public places do not affect hospitality and tourism businesses. Given the economic significance of this industry in the Caribbean, the local evidence provided by this study will help to effectively counteract interference by the tobacco industry and advance towards a smoke-free Caribbean.

Effect of comprehensive smoke-free legislation on the tourism industry in countries of the Caribbean Community

[ABSTRACT]. Objective. To assess whether the introduction of comprehensive smoke-free legislation affected tourism in four Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries – Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. Methods. We compared the evolution of three tourism variables – tourist arrivals, tourist expenditure, and aver- age length of stay – in a country implementing smoke-free environments (treated country) with the evolution of these variables in the same country if smoke-free legislation had not been implemented. We used a synthetic control method to recreate this counterfactual scenario by constructing a synthetic country using a weighted average of several donor-pool CARICOM countries that did not introduce legislation on smoke-free environ- ments during the period analyzed. We quantified the effect of the smoke-free environments on tourism as the difference between tourism variables in the treated and synthetic country. To assess whether the estimated effect of the smoke-free environments was the result of chance, we compared the effects of legislation in the treated country to placebo effects in the donor pool by assuming comprehensive smoke-free legislation was introduced in the same year as in the treated country. Results. Implementing smoke-free environments did not affect the arrival of tourists, tourism expenditure, or the average length of stay in the four countries. Conclusions. Our findings provide strong evidence that public policies banning smoking in public places do not affect hospitality and tourism businesses. Given the economic significance of this industry in the Carib- bean, the local evidence provided by this study will help to effectively counteract interference by the tobacco industry and advance towards a smoke-free Caribbean.

[RESUMEN]. Objetivo. Evaluar si la introducción de una legislación integral sobre ambientes libres de humo tuvo algún efecto sobre el turismo en cuatro países de la Comunidad del Caribe (CARICOM): Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica y Trinidad y Tobago. Métodos. Comparamos la evolución de tres variables turísticas (llegada de turistas, gasto de los turistas y duración promedio de la estancia) en un país que ha establecido entornos libres de humo de tabaco (país tratado) con la evolución de estas variables en el mismo país si no se hubiera adoptado una legislación sobre ambientes libres de humo. Se empleó un método de control sintético para recrear este escenario contrafáctico mediante la construcción de un país sintético utilizando un promedio ponderado de varios países del grupo de donantes de CARICOM que no habían introducido una legislación relativa a entornos libres de humo durante el período analizado. Se cuantificó el efecto de los entornos libres de humo de tabaco sobre el tur- ismo como la diferencia entre las variables turísticas en el país tratado y el sintético. Para evaluar si el efecto estimado de los entornos libres de humo fue estadísticamente significativo, se compararon los efectos de la legislación en el país tratado con los efectos placebo en el grupo de donantes mediante la suposición de que se hubiese introducido una legislación integral sobre ambientes libre de humo en el mismo año que en el país tratado. Resultados. La implementación de entornos sin humo de tabaco no tuvo ningún efecto en la llegada de tur- istas, el gasto de los turistas o la duración promedio de la estancia en los cuatro países. Conclusiones. Nuestros hallazgos ofrecen una prueba sólida de que las políticas públicas que prohíben fumar en lugares públicos no afectan a las empresas de hospitalidad y turismo. Dada la importancia económica de esta industria en el Caribe, la evidencia local proporcionada por este estudio ayudará a contrarrestar eficaz- mente la interferencia de la industria tabacalera y avanzar hacia una Comunidad del Caribe libre de humo de tabaco.

[RESUMO]. Objetivo. Avaliar se a promulgação de uma lei antifumo abrangente afetou o turismo em quatro países da Comunidade do Caribe (CARICOM), a saber: Barbados, Guiana, Jamaica e Trinidad e Tobago. Métodos. Comparamos a evolução de três variáveis relacionadas ao turismo (desembarque de turistas, des- pesas de turistas e duração média da estadia) em um país que havia implementado ambientes livres de fumo (país tratado) com a evolução dessas variáveis no mesmo país se a lei antifumo não tivesse sido implemen- tada. Usamos um método de controle sintético para recriar esse contrafactual, construindo um país sintético usando uma média ponderada de vários países doadores da CARICOM que não promulgaram leis sobre ambientes livres de fumaça durante o período analisado. Quantificamos o efeito dos ambientes livres de fumo no turismo como a diferença entre as variáveis de turismo no país tratado e no país sintético. Para avaliar se o efeito estimado dos ambientes livres de fumo foi resultado do acaso, comparamos os efeitos da legislação do país tratado com os efeitos placebo no grupo de doadores, supondo que uma lei antifumo abrangente havia sido promulgada no mesmo ano que no país tratado. Resultados. A implementação de ambientes livres de fumo não afetou o desembarque de turistas, as despe- sas de turistas ou a duração média da estadia nos quatro países. Conclusões. Nossas constatações fornecem evidências robustas de que as políticas públicas que proíbem o fumo em locais públicos não afetam o setor de hospitalidade e turismo. Considerando a importância econômica desta indústria para o Caribe, as evidências locais fornecidas por este estudo ajudarão a com- bater efetivamente a interferência da indústria do tabaco e a avançar rumo a um Caribe livre do fumo.

Effect of comprehensive smoke-free legislation on the tourism industry in countries of the Caribbean Community / Efecto de una legislación integral sobre ambientes libres de humo en la industria del turismo en los países de la Comunidad del Caribe / Efeito de uma lei antifumo abrangente sobre a indústria do turismo em países da Comunidade do Caribe

ABSTRACT Objective. To assess whether the introduction of comprehensive smoke-free legislation affected tourism in four Caribbean Community (CARICOM) countries - Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and Trinidad and Tobago. Methods. We compared the evolution of three tourism variables - tourist arrivals, tourist expenditure, and average length of stay - in a country implementing smoke-free environments (treated country) with the evolution of these variables in the same country if smoke-free legislation had not been implemented. We used a synthetic control method to recreate this counterfactual scenario by constructing a synthetic country using a weighted average of several donor-pool CARICOM countries that did not introduce legislation on smoke-free environments during the period analyzed. We quantified the effect of the smoke-free environments on tourism as the difference between tourism variables in the treated and synthetic country. To assess whether the estimated effect of the smoke-free environments was the result of chance, we compared the effects of legislation in the treated country to placebo effects in the donor pool by assuming comprehensive smoke-free legislation was introduced in the same year as in the treated country. Results. Implementing smoke-free environments did not affect the arrival of tourists, tourism expenditure, or the average length of stay in the four countries. Conclusions. Our findings provide strong evidence that public policies banning smoking in public places do not affect hospitality and tourism businesses. Given the economic significance of this industry in the Caribbean, the local evidence provided by this study will help to effectively counteract interference by the tobacco industry and advance towards a smoke-free Caribbean.

RESUMEN Objetivo. Evaluar si la introducción de una legislación integral sobre ambientes libres de humo tuvo algún efecto sobre el turismo en cuatro países de la Comunidad del Caribe (CARICOM): Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica y Trinidad y Tobago. Métodos. Comparamos la evolución de tres variables turísticas (llegada de turistas, gasto de los turistas y duración promedio de la estancia) en un país que ha establecido entornos libres de humo de tabaco (país tratado) con la evolución de estas variables en el mismo país si no se hubiera adoptado una legislación sobre ambientes libres de humo. Se empleó un método de control sintético para recrear este escenario contrafáctico mediante la construcción de un país sintético utilizando un promedio ponderado de varios países del grupo de donantes de CARICOM que no habían introducido una legislación relativa a entornos libres de humo durante el período analizado. Se cuantificó el efecto de los entornos libres de humo de tabaco sobre el turismo como la diferencia entre las variables turísticas en el país tratado y el sintético. Para evaluar si el efecto estimado de los entornos libres de humo fue estadísticamente significativo, se compararon los efectos de la legislación en el país tratado con los efectos placebo en el grupo de donantes mediante la suposición de que se hubiese introducido una legislación integral sobre ambientes libre de humo en el mismo año que en el país tratado. Resultados. La implementación de entornos sin humo de tabaco no tuvo ningún efecto en la llegada de turistas, el gasto de los turistas o la duración promedio de la estancia en los cuatro países. Conclusiones. Nuestros hallazgos ofrecen una prueba sólida de que las políticas públicas que prohíben fumar en lugares públicos no afectan a las empresas de hospitalidad y turismo. Dada la importancia económica de esta industria en el Caribe, la evidencia local proporcionada por este estudio ayudará a contrarrestar eficazmente la interferencia de la industria tabacalera y avanzar hacia una Comunidad del Caribe libre de humo de tabaco.

RESUMO Objetivo. Avaliar se a promulgação de uma lei antifumo abrangente afetou o turismo em quatro países da Comunidade do Caribe (CARICOM), a saber: Barbados, Guiana, Jamaica e Trinidad e Tobago. Métodos. Comparamos a evolução de três variáveis relacionadas ao turismo (desembarque de turistas, despesas de turistas e duração média da estadia) em um país que havia implementado ambientes livres de fumo (país tratado) com a evolução dessas variáveis no mesmo país se a lei antifumo não tivesse sido implementada. Usamos um método de controle sintético para recriar esse contrafactual, construindo um país sintético usando uma média ponderada de vários países doadores da CARICOM que não promulgaram leis sobre ambientes livres de fumaça durante o período analisado. Quantificamos o efeito dos ambientes livres de fumo no turismo como a diferença entre as variáveis de turismo no país tratado e no país sintético. Para avaliar se o efeito estimado dos ambientes livres de fumo foi resultado do acaso, comparamos os efeitos da legislação do país tratado com os efeitos placebo no grupo de doadores, supondo que uma lei antifumo abrangente havia sido promulgada no mesmo ano que no país tratado. Resultados. A implementação de ambientes livres de fumo não afetou o desembarque de turistas, as despesas de turistas ou a duração média da estadia nos quatro países. Conclusões. Nossas constatações fornecem evidências robustas de que as políticas públicas que proíbem o fumo em locais públicos não afetam o setor de hospitalidade e turismo. Considerando a importância econômica desta indústria para o Caribe, as evidências locais fornecidas por este estudo ajudarão a combater efetivamente a interferência da indústria do tabaco e a avançar rumo a um Caribe livre do fumo.

Premature Mortality from Cardiovascular Disease in the Americas - Will the Goal of a Decline of "25% by 2025" be Met?

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the underlying cause 1.6 million deaths per year in the Americas, accounting for 30% of total mortality and 38% of by non-communicable deaths diseases (NCDs). A 25% reduction in premature mortality due four main NCDs was targeted by the 2011 High-level Meeting of the General Assembly on the Prevention and Control of NCDs. While overall CVD mortality fell in the Americas during the past decade, trends in premature CVD mortality during the same period have not been described, particularly in the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. METHODS: This is a population-based trend-series study based on a total of 6,133,666 deaths to describe the trends and characteristics of premature mortality due to CVD and to estimates of the average annual percentage of change during the period 2000-2010 in the Americas. FINDINGS: Premature mortality due to CVD in the Americas fell by 21% in the period 2000-2010 with a -2.5% average annual rate of change in the last 5 year-a statistically significant reduction of mortality-. Mortality from ischemic diseases, declined by 25% - 24% among men and 26% among women. Cerebrovascular diseases declined by 27% -26% among men and 28% among women. Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago, the Dominican Republic, Bahamas, and Brazil had CVD premature mortality rates over 200 per 100,000 population, while the average for the Region was 132.7. US and Canada will meet the 25% reduction target before 2025. Mexico, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, Panama, Guyana, and El Salvador did not significantly reduce premature mortality among men and Guyana, the Dominican Republic, and Panama did not achieve the required annual reduction in women. CONCLUSIONS: Trends in premature mortality due to CVD observed in last decade in the Americas would indicate that if these trends continue, the Region as a whole and a majority of its countries will be able to reach the goal of a 25% relative reduction in premature mortality even before 2025.

Cervical and female breast cancers in the Americas: current situation and opportunities for action.

OBJECTIVE: To understand better the current regional situation and public health response to cervical cancer and female breast cancer in the Americas. METHODS: Data on cervical cancer and female breast cancers in 33 countries, for the period from 2000 to the last year with available data, were extracted from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Regional Mortality Database and analysed. Changes in mortality rates over the study period - in all countries except those with small populations and large fluctuations in time-series mortality data - were calculated using Poisson regression models. Information from the PAHO Country Capacity Survey on noncommunicable diseases was also analysed. FINDINGS: The Bahamas, Trinidad and Tobago and Uruguay showed relatively high rates of death from breast cancer, whereas the three highest rates of death from cervical cancer were observed in El Salvador, Nicaragua and Paraguay. Several countries - particularly Paraguay and Venezuela - have high rates of death from both types of cancer. Although mortality from cervical cancer has generally been decreasing in the Americas, decreases in mortality from breast cancer have only been observed in a few countries in the Region of the Americas. All but one of the 25 countries in the Americas included in the PAHO Country Capacity Survey reported having public health services for the screening and treatment of breast and cervical cancers. CONCLUSION: Most countries in the Americas have the public health capacity needed to screen for - and treat - breast and cervical cancers and, therefore, the potential to reduce the burden posed by these cancers.

Genital human papillomaviruses among women of reproductive age in Jamaica.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the prevalence and distribution of genital human papillomavirus (HPV) types among women in Jamaica, and to explore risk factors associated with HPV infection. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study that took place in April-July 2010 with 852 sexually-active women, 16-49 years of age, who had attended a selected public or private primary health clinic in one of Jamaica's four health authority regions. Sociodemographic data was collected from each participant by trained study staff. Each participant had a gynecological examination that included a clinical Pap test and a cervical sample for HPV detection and typing-performed using the Research Use Only Linear Array (LA) genotyping assay (Roche Diagnostics Corp., Indianapolis, Indiana, United States). Overall and type-specific prevalence of HPV infection was calculated for 37 HPV types included in the LA genotyping assay. RESULTS: HPV DNA was detected in 460 of the 852 women (54.0%). Oncogenic HPV was detected in 297 women (34.9%) and HPV types 16/18 were found in 86 women (10.1%). The most frequently occurring HPV types were: 16 (6.2%); 35 (6.0%); 62 and 83 (5.5%); 61 and 58 (5.4%); 84 (4.7%); 18 (4.3%); and, 66 and 81 (4.2%). HPV prevalence was highest among women who were single, young (16-19 years), and had had more than three sexual partners in their lifetime. CONCLUSIONS: These results, coupled with high rates of cervical cancer, support introducing HPV vaccines while maintaining and strengthening cervical cancer screening services. Policy decision-making that reflects these results is instrumental to establishing a comprehensive cervical cancer program in Jamaica.

Genital human papillomaviruses among women of reproductive age in Jamaica / Virus de los papilomas humanos genitales en mujeres en edad reproductiva de Jamaica

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the prevalence and distribution of genital human papillomavirus (HPV) types among women in Jamaica, and to explore risk factors associated with HPV infection. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study that took place in April-July 2010 with 852 sexually-active women, 16-49 years of age, who had attended a selected public or private primary health clinic in one of Jamaica's four health authority regions. Sociodemographic data was collected from each participant by trained study staff. Each participant had a gynecological examination that included a clinical Pap test and a cervical sample for HPV detection and typing-performed using the Research Use Only Linear Array (LA) genotyping assay (Roche Diagnostics Corp., Indianapolis, Indiana, United States). Overall and type-specific prevalence of HPV infection was calculated for 37 HPV types included in the LA genotyping assay. RESULTS: HPV DNA was detected in 460 of the 852 women (54.0%). Oncogenic HPV was detected in 297 women (34.9%) and HPV types 16/18 were found in 86 women (10.1%). The most frequently occurring HPV types were: 16 (6.2%); 35 (6.0%); 62 and 83 (5.5%); 61 and 58 (5.4%); 84 (4.7%); 18 (4.3%); and, 66 and 81 (4.2%). HPV prevalence was highest among women who were single, young (16-19 years), and had had more than three sexual partners in their lifetime. CONCLUSIONS: These results, coupled with high rates of cervical cancer, support introducing HPV vaccines while maintaining and strengthening cervical cancer screening services. Policy decisionmaking that reflects these results is instrumental to establishing a comprehensive cervical cancer program in Jamaica.

OBJETIVO: Determinar la prevalencia y la distribución de los tipos de virus de los papilomas humanos (VPH) genitales en las mujeres de Jamaica y explorar los factores de riesgo asociados con la infección por VPH. MÉTODOS: Este estudio transversal se llevó a cabo de abril a julio del 2010. Participaron 852 mujeres sexualmente activas, de 16 a 49 años de edad, que acudieron a uno de los consultorios públicos o privados de atención primaria seleccionados en cada una de las cuatro autoridades sanitarias regionales de Jamaica. Personal capacitado del estudio recopiló datos sociodemográficos de cada participante. Todas las participantes fueron sometidas a un examen ginecológico que comprendía una prueba clínica de Papanicolaou y la obtención de una muestra del cuello uterino a efectos de detectar y tipificarlos VPH mediante la prueba de genotipado Linear Array (LA) (Roche Diagnostics Corp., Indianápolis, Indiana, Estados Unidos), de uso exclusivo en investigación. Se calcularon las prevalencias global y específica de tipo de la infección por VPH para los 37 tipos de VPH incluidos en la prueba de genotipado LA. RESULTADOS: Se detectó ADN de VPH en 460 de las 852 mujeres (54,0%). Se detectaron VPH oncógenos en 297 mujeres (34,9%), y VPH de los tipos 16 y 18 en 86 mujeres (10,1%). Los tipos de VPH detectados con mayor frecuencia fueron 16 (6,2%), 35 (6,0%), 62 y 83 (5,5%), 61 y 58 (5,4%), 84 (4,7%), 18 (4,3%), y 66 y 81 (4,2%). La prevalencia de VPH fue más elevada en mujeres solteras, jóvenes (de 16 a 19 años) y que habían tenido más de tres compañeros sexuales en sus vidas. CONCLUSIONES: Estos resultados, junto a las elevadas tasas de cáncer cervicouterino, fundamentan la introducción de las vacunas contra el VPH al tiempo que se mantienen y refuerzan los servicios de tamizaje del cáncer cervicouterino. Las decisiones políticas que se adopten como consecuencia de estos resultados serán determinantes para establecer un programa integral contra el cáncer cervicouterino en Jamaica.

Complications in immediate breast reconstruction after mastectomy.

OBJECTIVES: Immediate post-mastectomy breast reconstruction (IBR) is a procedure that has proven advantages, but it also entails risks. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors for reconstruction failure. METHODS: A review was made of all the IBR carried out at a general hospital from 2002 to 2009. Retrospective information was obtained about postoperative complications and the characteristics of patients and treatments applied. The minimum follow-up period was 9 months. Cox's regression analysis was performed on the variables related to the reconstruction failure requiring the removal of the prosthesis, with an explanatory model in which all the study variables were introduced and a predictive model that contained only the variables known before the intervention. RESULTS: A total of 115 IRB interventions carried out on 112 women with breast cancer were analyzed. The mean follow-up period was 25.5 months. In sixty cases (52.2 percent), there were no complications; in sixteen cases (13.9 percent) minor complications appeared, and in 39 (33.9 percent) the complications were moderate. In twenty-six cases (22.6 percent), a reconstruction failure occurred. Cox's regression model revealed that the reconstruction failures were related to the patient's age (Hazard Ratio 1.08), to neoadjuvant chemotherapy (HR 6.24) and to postoperative tamoxifen (HR 3.10). The predictive model included the age of the patient (HR 1.05) and the use of neoadjuvant chemotherapy (HR 5.11). CONCLUSIONS: A significant proportion of the patients receiving IBR developed reconstruction failure. Multivariate analysis identified three variables related to this complication, two of which were known before the intervention.

Providing vaccines against human papillomavirus to adolescent girls in the Americas: battling cervical cancer, improving overall health.

Vaccines against the human papillomavirus (HPV)--the primary cause of cervical cancer--target adolescent girls, many of whom have limited contact with health services. Countries in the Americas are beginning to use HPV vaccines to increase the impact of cervical cancer programs and as an entry point to broader health services for girls. This strategy opens new opportunities to improve lifelong health habits; encourage regular cervical cancer screening and treatment, when necessary; and offer associated services such as reproductive health and nutrition guidance. Some of the early experiences with this strategy illustrate challenges and opportunities that may arise with other new vaccines.

Safety and immunogenicity of prepandemic H5N1 influenza vaccines: a systematic review of the literature.

A systematic review was performed to assess the safety and immunogenicity of the prepandemic H5N1 influenza vaccines licensed so far. A bibliographic search according to the COSI protocol was carried out and 8 of 235 potentially relevant publications were selected. Quality assessment was defined with both CASP and Jadad checklists. Taken together, the results from the present systematic review suggest that the inactivated split-virion formulation that includes a low antigen dose (3.8 microg) and an oil-in-water emulsion-based adjuvant, represents the best option in the case of a pandemic, due to its antigen-sparing capacity and its favorable safety profile.