Preservation and evolution of organic matter during experimental fossilisation of the hyperthermophilic archaea Methanocaldococcus jannaschii.

Identification of the earliest traces of life is made difficult by the scarcity of the preserved microbial remains and by the alteration and potential contamination of the organic matter (OM) content of rocks. These factors can confuse interpretations of the biogenicity and syngenicity of fossilised structures and organic molecules found in ancient rocks. In order to improve our knowledge of the fossilisation processes and their effects at the molecular level, we made a preliminary study of the fate of OM during experimental fossilisation. Changes in the composition and quantity of amino acids, monosaccharides and fatty acids were followed with HPLC, GC and GC-MS analyses during 1 year of silicification of the hyperthermophilic Archaea Methanocaldococcus jannaschii. Although the cells themselves did not fossilise and the accompanying extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) did, our analyses showed that the OM initially present in both cells and EPS was uniformly preserved in the precipitated silica, with amino acids and fatty acids being the best preserved compounds. This study thus completes previous data obtained by electron microscopy investigations of simulated microbial fossilisation and can help better identification and interpretation of microbial biosignatures in both ancient rocks and in recent hydrothermal formations and sediments.

TPV1, the first virus isolated from the hyperthermophilic genus Thermococcus.

We describe a novel virus, TPV1 (Thermococcus prieurii virus 1), which was discovered in a hyperthermophilic euryarchaeote isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal chimney sample collected at a depth of 2700 m at the East Pacific Rise. TPV1 is the first virus isolated and characterized from the hyperthermophilic euryarchaeal genus Thermococcus. TPV1 particles have a lemon-shaped morphology (140 nm × 80 nm) similar to the structures previously reported for Fuselloviruses and for the unclassified virus-like particle PAV1 (Pyrococcus abyssi virus 1). The infection with TPV1 does not cause host lysis and viral replication can be induced by UV irradiation. TPV1 contains a double-stranded circular DNA of 21.5 kb, which is also present in high copy number in a free form in the host cell. The TPV1 genome encompasses 28 predicted genes; the protein sequences encoded in 16 of these genes show no significant similarity to proteins in public databases. Proteins predicted to be involved in genome replication were identified as well as transcriptional regulators. TPV1 encodes also a predicted integrase of the tyrosine recombinase family. The only two genes that are homologous between TPV1 and PAV1 are TPV1-22 and TPV1-23, which encode proteins containing a concanavalin A-like lectin/glucanase domain that might be involved in virus-host recognition.

Comparison of microbial communities associated with three Atlantic ultramafic hydrothermal systems.

The distribution of Archaea and methanogenic, methanotrophic and sulfate-reducing communities in three Atlantic ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal systems (Rainbow, Ashadze, Lost City) was compared using 16S rRNA gene and functional gene (mcrA, pmoA and dsrA) clone libraries. The overall archaeal community was diverse and heterogeneously distributed between the hydrothermal sites and the types of samples analyzed (seawater, hydrothermal fluid, chimney and sediment). The Lost City hydrothermal field, characterized by high alkaline warm fluids (pH>11; T<95 °C), harbored a singular archaeal diversity mostly composed of unaffiliated Methanosarcinales. The archaeal communities associated with the recently discovered Ashadze 1 site, one of the deepest active hydrothermal fields known (4100 m depth), showed significant differences between the two different vents analyzed and were characterized by putative extreme halophiles. Sequences related to the rarely detected Nanoarchaeota phylum and Methanopyrales order were also retrieved from the Rainbow and Ashadze hydrothermal fluids. However, the methanogenic Methanococcales was the most widely distributed hyper/thermophilic archaeal group among the hot and acidic ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal system environments. Most of the lineages detected are linked to methane and hydrogen cycling, suggesting that in ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal systems, large methanogenic and methanotrophic communities could be fuelled by hydrothermal fluids highly enriched in methane and hydrogen.

Pyrococcus yayanosii sp. nov., an obligate piezophilic hyperthermophilic archaeon isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent.

An obligate piezophilic anaerobic hyperthermophilic archaeon, designated strain CH1(T), was isolated from a hydrothermal vent site named 'Ashadze', which is located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at a depth of 4100 m. Enrichment and isolation of the strain were carried out at 95 °C under a hydrostatic pressure of 42 MPa. Cells of strain CH1(T) were highly motile irregular cocci with a diameter of ~1-1.5 µm. Growth was recorded at 80-108 °C (optimum 98 °C) and at pressures of 20-120 MPa (optimum 52 MPa). No growth was observed under atmospheric pressures at 60-110 °C. Growth was observed at pH 6.0-9.5 (optimum 7.5-8.0) and in 2.5-5.5% (w/v) NaCl (optimum 3.5%). Strain CH1(T) was strictly anaerobic and grew on complex proteinaceous substrates, such as yeast extract, Peptone, and casein, as well as on sucrose, starch, chitin, pyruvate, acetate and glycerol without electron acceptors. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 49.0±0.5 mol%. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences revealed that strain CH1(T) belongs to the genus Pyrococcus. Based on its physiological properties and similarity levels between ribosomal proteins, strain CH1(T) represents a novel species, for which the name Pyrococcus yayanosii sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is CH1(T) (=JCM 16557). This strain is also available by request from the Souchothèque de Bretagne (catalogue LMBE) culture collection (collection no. 3310).

pAMT11, a novel plasmid isolated from a Thermococcus sp. strain closely related to the virus-like integrated element TKV1 of the Thermococcus kodakaraensis genome.

A novel extrachromosomal element that we called pAMT11 was discovered in a deep-sea vent isolate belonging to the hyperthermophilic euryarchaeal order Thermococcales. It consists of a double-stranded DNA of 20,534bp which encodes 30 putative open reading frames (ORFs) of which six could be assigned to a putative function on the basis of sequence similarity to known genes or to protein domain families. Most of the ORFs of pAMT1 showed homology and synteny with a genomic island of Thermococcus kodakaraensis KOD1. This region, named TKV1, was previously described as a "virus-like integrated element" and assumed to integrate into the host chromosome by a site-specific recombination mechanism similar to that of Sulfolobus solfataricus virus 1. While most of the genes shared by pAMT11 and TKV1 encode putative membrane proteins presumably involved in virus particle formation, attempts to induce production of virus particles by mitomycin treatment of AMT11 cultures failed, suggesting that pAMT11 may represent the genome of a defective virus or a plasmid. Genomes of mobile elements usually contain two regions: a core of conserved genes mainly involved in replication, maintenance or spreading of the genetic element, and a variable set of accessory genes. Surprisingly, genes presumably implied in the replication process are quite divergent between TKV1 and pAMT11. Indeed, TKV1 possesses a MCM-like protein that may function as a replication initiator, while pAMT11 encodes a putative non-conventional protein distantly related to the Rep protein previously described in a small plasmid of Pyrococcus sp. strain JT1, assumed to replicate by a rolling-circle (RC) mechanism. However, in the case of pAMT11, this mode of plasmid replication could not be experimentally proven and is questionable given the lack of significant similarities with any other members of the RC-Rep superfamily and its unusual large size compared to other RC plasmids.

Microbial diversity in Tunisian geothermal springs as detected by molecular and culture-based approaches.

Prokaryotic diversities of 12 geothermal hot springs located in Northern, Central and Southern Tunisia were investigated by culture-based and molecular approaches. Enrichment cultures for both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms were successfully obtained at temperatures ranging from 50 to 75°C. Fourteen strains including four novel species were cultivated and assigned to the phyla Firmicutes (9), Thermotogae (2), Betaproteobacteria (1), Synergistetes (1) and Bacteroidetes (1). Archaeal or universal oligonucleotide primer sets were used to generate 16S rRNA gene libraries. Representative groups included Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Deinococcus-Thermus, Thermotogae, Synergistetes, Bacteroidetes, Aquificae, Chloroflexi, candidate division OP9 in addition to other yet unclassified strains. The archaeal library showed a low diversity of clone sequences belonging to the phyla Euryarchaeota and Crenarchaeota. Furthermore, we confirmed the occurrence of sulfate reducers and methanogens by amplification and sequencing of dissimilatory sulfite reductase (dsrAB) and methyl coenzyme M reductase α-subunit (mcrA) genes. Altogether, we discuss the diverse prokaryotic communities arising from the 12 geothermal hot springs studied and relate these findings to the physico-chemical features of the hot springs.

Active archaeal communities at cold seep sediments populated by Siboglinidae tubeworms from the Storegga Slide.

Siboglinid tubeworms in cold seep sediments can locally modify the geochemical gradients of electron acceptors and donors, hence creating potential microhabitats for prokaryotic populations. The archaeal communities associated with sediments populated by Oligobrachia haakonmosbiensis and Sclerolinum contortum Siboglinid tubeworms in the Storegga Slide were examined in this study. Vertical distribution of archaeal communities was investigated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis based on 16S rRNA genes. The active fraction of the archaeal community was assessed by using reverse-transcribed rRNA. Archaeal communities associated with sediments colonized by tubeworms were affiliated with uncultivated archaeal lineages of the Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota. The composition of the active archaeal populations changed with depth indicating a reorganization of microbial communities. 16S rRNA gene libraries were dominated by sequences affiliated to the Rice Cluster V which are unusual in marine sediment samples. Moreover, this study provides the first evidence of living Crenarchaeota of the Rice Cluster V in cold seep sediments. Furthermore, the Storegga Slide sediments harbored a high diversity of other minor groups of uncultivated lineages including Terrestrial Miscellaneous Euryarchaeotal Group, Marine Benthic Group (MBG)-D, MBG-E, Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Euryarchaeotal Group, Lake Dagow Sediment, Val Kotinen Lake clade III, and Sippenauer Moor 1. Thus, we hypothesize that the vertical geochemical imprint created by the tubeworms could support broad active archaeal populations in the Siboglinidae-populated Storegga Slide sediments.

Marinitoga litoralis sp. nov., a thermophilic, heterotrophic bacterium isolated from a coastal thermal spring on Ile Saint-Paul, Southern Indian Ocean.

A novel thermophilic, anaerobic and organotrophic bacterium, designated strain MC3T, was isolated from a coastal thermal spring on Ile Saint-Paul in the Southern Indian Ocean. Cells of strain MC3T were motile rods, 0.8-1.0 microm wide and 1.0-2.4 microm long during exponential phase and up to 7.0 microm long during stationary phase. Strain MC3T was an anaerobic organotroph able to use diverse organic compounds. It was also able to reduce sulfur to sulfide. Growth was observed at temperatures ranging from 45 to 70 degrees C (optimum at 60 degrees C), between pH 5.5 and 7.5 (optimum at pH 6) and from 8 to 46 g NaCl l(-1) (optimum at 26 g l(-1)). The total G+C content of the genomic DNA was 26.2 mol%. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA gene sequence comparisons indicated that strain MC3T was affiliated with the genus Marinitoga within the order Thermotogales. It shared 94.4-95.7% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with strains of other Marinitoga species; Marinitoga hydrogenitolerans was found to be the most closely related organism. Based on the data from the phylogenetic analysis and the physiological properties of the novel isolate, strain MC3T should be classified as a representative of a novel species, for which the name Marinitoga litoralis sp. nov. is proposed; the type strain is MC3T (=DSM 21709T =JCM 15581T).

Thermodesulfatator atlanticus sp. nov., a thermophilic, chemolithoautotrophic, sulfate-reducing bacterium isolated from a Mid-Atlantic Ridge hydrothermal vent.

A novel, strictly anaerobic, thermophilic, sulfate-reducing bacterium, designated strain AT1325(T), was isolated from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent at the Rainbow site on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. This strain was subjected to a polyphasic taxonomic analysis. Cells were Gram-negative motile rods (approximately 2.4 x 0.6 microm) with a single polar flagellum. Strain AT1325(T) grew at 55-75 degrees C (optimum, 65-70 degrees C), at pH 5.5-8.0 (optimum, 6.5-7.5) and in the presence of 1.5-4.5 % (w/v) NaCl (optimum, 2.5 %). Cells grew chemolithoautotrophically with H2 as an energy source and SO4(2-) as an electron acceptor. Alternatively, the novel isolate was able to use methylamine, peptone or yeast extract as carbon sources. The dominant fatty acids (>5 % of the total) were C(16 : 0), C(18 : 1)omega7c, C(18 : 0) and C(19 : 0) cyclo omega8c. The G+C content of the genomic DNA of strain AT1325(T) was 45.6 mol%. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene sequences placed strain AT1325(T) within the family Thermodesulfobacteriaceae, in the bacterial domain. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that strain AT1325(T) belonged to the genus Thermodesulfatator, sharing 97.8 % similarity with the type strain of Thermodesulfatator indicus, the unique representative species of this genus. On the basis of the data presented, it is suggested that strain AT1325(T) represents a novel species of the genus Thermodesulfatator, for which the name Thermodesulfatator atlanticus sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is AT1325(T) (=DSM 21156(T)=JCM 15391(T)).

Archaeal communities associated with shallow to deep subseafloor sediments of the New Caledonia Basin.

The distribution of the archaeal communities in deep subseafloor sediments [0-36 m below the seafloor (mbsf)] from the New Caledonia and Fairway Basins was investigated using DNA- and RNA-derived 16S rRNA clone libraries, functional genes and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). A new method, Co-Migration DGGE (CM-DGGE), was developed to access selectively the active archaeal diversity. Prokaryotic cell abundances at the open-ocean sites were on average approximately 3.5 times lower than at a site under terrestrial influence. The sediment surface archaeal community (0-1.5 mbsf) was characterized by active Marine Group 1 (MG-1) Archaea that co-occurred with ammonia monooxygenase gene (amoA) sequences affiliated to a group of uncultured sedimentary Crenarchaeota. However, the anoxic subsurface methane-poor sediments (below 1.5 mbsf) were dominated by less active archaeal communities, such as the Thermoplasmatales, Marine Benthic Group D and other lineages probably involved in the methane cycle (Methanosarcinales, ANME-2 and DSAG/MBG-B). Moreover, the archaeal diversity of some sediment layers was restricted to only one lineage (Uncultured Euryarchaeota, DHVE6, MBG-B, MG-1 and SAGMEG). Sequences forming two clusters within the Thermococcales order were also present in these cold subseafloor sediments, suggesting that these uncultured putative thermophilic archaeal communities might have originated from a different environment. This study shows a transition between surface and subsurface sediment archaeal communities.

Nautilia abyssi sp. nov., a thermophilic, chemolithoautotrophic, sulfur-reducing bacterium isolated from an East Pacific Rise hydrothermal vent.

A novel strictly anaerobic, thermophilic, sulfur-reducing bacterium, designated PH1209(T), was isolated from an East Pacific Rise hydrothermal vent (1 degrees N) sample and studied using a polyphasic taxonomic approach. Cells were Gram-negative, motile rods (approx. 1.60 x 0.40 microm) with a single polar flagellum. Strain PH1209(T) grew at temperatures between 33 and 65 degrees C (optimum 60 degrees C), from pH 5.0 to 8.0 (optimum 6.0-6.5), and between 2 and 4 % (w/v) NaCl (optimum 3 %). Cells grew chemolithoautotrophically with H(2) as an energy source, S(0) as an electron acceptor and CO(2) as a carbon source. Strain PH1209(T) was also able to use peptone and yeast extract as carbon sources. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 35 mol%. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that strain PH1209(T) fell within the order Nautiliales, in the class Epsilonproteobacteria. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis indicated that strain PH1209(T) belonged to the genus Nautilia and shared 97.2 and 98.7 % 16S rRNA gene sequence identity, respectively, with the type strains of Nautilia lithotrophica and Nautilia profundicola. It is proposed, from the polyphasic evidence, that the strain represents a novel species, Nautilia abyssi sp. nov.; the type strain is PH1209(T) (=DSM 21157(T)=JCM 15390(T)).

Effect of variation of environmental conditions on the microbial communities of deep-sea vent chimneys, cultured in a bioreactor.

Both cultivation and molecular techniques were used to investigate the microbial diversity and dynamic of a deep-sea vent chimney. The enrichment cultures performed in a gas-lift bioreactor were inoculated with a black smoker chimney sample collected on TAG site on the mid-Atlantic ridge. To mimic as close as possible environmental conditions, the cultures were performed in oligotrophic medium with nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon dioxide (N(2)/H(2)/CO(2)) gas sweeping. Also, the temperature was first settled at a temperature of 85 degrees C and colloidal sulphur was added. Then, the temperature was lowered to 60 degrees C and sulphur was omitted. Archaeal and bacterial diversity was studied in both culture and natural samples. Through 16S rRNA gene sequences analysis of the enrichment cultures microorganisms affiliated to Archeoglobales, Thermococcales were detected in both conditions while, Deferribacterales and Thermales were detected only at 65 degrees C in the absence of sulphur. Single-stranded conformational polymorphism and quantitative PCR permit to study the microbial community dynamic during the two enrichment cultures. The effect of environmental changes (modification of culture conditions), i.e. temperature, medium composition, electron donors and acceptors availability were shown to affect the microbial community in culture, as this would happen in their environment. The effect of environmental changes, i.e. temperature and medium composition was shown to affect the microbial community in culture, as this could happen in their environment. The modification of culture conditions, such as temperature, organic matter concentration, electron donors and acceptors availability allowed to enrich different population of prokaryotes inhabiting hydrothermal chimneys.

Pyrococcus CH1, an obligate piezophilic hyperthermophile: extending the upper pressure-temperature limits for life.

A novel hydrothermal site was discovered in March 2007, on the mid-Atlantic ridge during the cruise 'Serpentine'. At a depth of 4100 m, the site 'Ashadze' is the deepest vent field known so far. Smoker samples were collected with the ROV 'Victor 6000' and processed in the laboratory for the enrichment of anaerobic heterotrophic microorganisms under high-temperature and high-hydrostatic pressure conditions. Strain CH1 was successfully isolated and assigned to the genus Pyrococcus, within the Euryarchaeota lineage within the Archaea domain. This organism grows within a temperature range of 80 to 108 degrees C and a pressure range of 20 to 120 MPa, with optima for 98 degrees C and 52 MPa respectively. Pyrococcus CH1 represents the first obligate piezophilic hyperthermophilic microorganism known so far. Comparisons of growth yields obtained under high-temperature/high-pressure conditions for relative organisms isolated from various depths, showed clear relationships between depth at origin and responses to hydrostatic pressure.

Presence and activity of anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria at deep-sea hydrothermal vents.

Recent studies indicate that ammonia is an important electron donor for the oxidation of fixed nitrogen, both in the marine water column and sediments. This process, known as anammox, has so far only been observed in a large range of temperature habitats. The present study investigated the role of anammox in hydrothermal settings. During three oceanographic expeditions to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, hydrothermal samples were collected from five vent sites, at depths ranging from 750 to 3650 m from cold to hot habitats. Evidence for the occurrence of anammox in these particular habitats was demonstrated by concurrent surveys, including the amplification of 16S rRNA gene sequences related to known anammox bacteria, ladderanes lipids analysis and measurement of a (14)N(15)N dinitrogen production in isotope-pairing experiments at 60 and 85 degrees C. Together these results indicate that new deep-branching anammox bacteria may be active in these hot habitats.

Extending the sub-sea-floor biosphere.

Sub-sea-floor sediments may contain two-thirds of Earth's total prokaryotic biomass. However, this has its basis in data extrapolation from ~500-meter to 4-kilometer depths, whereas the deepest documented prokaryotes are from only 842 meters. Here, we provide evidence for low concentrations of living prokaryotic cells in the deepest (1626 meters below the sea floor), oldest (111 million years old), and potentially hottest (~100 degrees C) marine sediments investigated. These Newfoundland margin sediments also have DNA sequences related to thermophilic and/or hyperthermophilic Archaea. These form two unique clusters within Pyrococcus and Thermococcus genera, suggesting unknown, uncultured groups are present in deep, hot, marine sediments (~54 degrees to 100 degrees C). Sequences of anaerobic methane-oxidizing Archaea were also present, suggesting a deep biosphere partly supported by methane. These findings demonstrate that the sub-sea-floor biosphere extends to at least 1600 meters below the sea floor and probably deeper, given an upper temperature limit for prokaryotic life of at least 113 degrees C and increasing thermogenic energy supply with depth.

Presence of Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus DNA in accretion ice in the subglacial Lake Vostok, Antarctica, assessed using rrs, cbb and hox.

The 3561 m Vostok ice core sample originating from the subglacial Lake Vostok accretion (frozen lake water) ice with sediment inclusions was thoroughly studied by various means to confirm the presence of the thermophile bacterium Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus reported earlier in the 3607 m accretion ice sample. PCR and molecular-phylogenetic analyses performed in two independent laboratories were made using different 16S rRNA gene (rrs) targeted primers. As a result, rrs-targeted PCR permitted to recover several very closely related clones with a small genetic distance to Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus (< 1%). In addition, RubisCO (cbbL or rbcL) and NiFe-Hydrogenase (hoxV or hupL) targeted PCR have also allowed to recover sequences highly related to Hydrogenophilus thermoluteolus. All these results point to the presence of thermophilic chemoautotrophic microorganisms in Lake Vostok accretion ice. They presumably originate from deep faults in the bedrock cavity containing the lake in which episodes of seismotectonic activity would release debris along with microbial cells.

Diversity of Bacteria and Archaea associated with a carbonate-rich metalliferous sediment sample from the Rainbow vent field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Two sediment cores were collected in an inactive area of the deep-sea hydrothermal vent field Rainbow (36 degrees N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). Metals and carbonates were abundant throughout the cores; calcite (CaCO3) was found throughout the cores while dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2] and siderite (FeCO3) were only found in deeper layers. Using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, we examined the bacterial and archaeal diversity in a sediment layer that contained the three carbonates. The retrieved bacterial and archaeal sequences were new and less than 4% of the sequences exhibited 94% or more identity with that of cultured organisms. The analysis of the composition of the bacterial library revealed a high diversity of sequences. Half of the bacterial clones was affiliated to the gamma-Proteobacteria. Most of them had environmental sequences retrieved from deep-sea sediments as closest relatives, some of which being distantly related to free-living and symbiotic sulfur-oxidizers. Other sequences clustered in the alpha-, delta- and epsilon-Proteobacteria, the 'Bacteroidetes', the 'Planctomycetes', the 'Nitrospirae', the 'Actinobacteria', the 'Chlorobi ' and the 'Verrumicrobia'. Based on clonal abundance and sequence comparisons, phylotype groups putatively involved in the oxydation of sulfur compounds appeared to dominate in the studied sample. The majority of the archaeal sequences clustered in an euryarchaeotic lineage recently identified in the walls of black smokers suggesting a possible thermophilic way of life of these uncultured microorganisms. Oxygen isotopic composition of siderite and dolomite indicated that they were formed at 67 degrees C and 94 degrees C respectively. Together with chemical and microbiological data, this suggested that hydrothermal fluids may have circulated through this sediment.

Marinilactibacillus piezotolerans sp. nov., a novel marine lactic acid bacterium isolated from deep sub-seafloor sediment of the Nankai Trough.

A piezotolerant, mesophilic, marine lactic acid bacterium (strain LT20T) was isolated from a deep sub-seafloor sediment core collected at Nankai Trough, off the coast of Japan. Cells were Gram-positive, rod-shaped, non-sporulating and non-motile. The NaCl concentration range for growth was 0-120 g l(-1), with the optimum at 10-20 g l(-1). The temperature range for growth at pH 7.0 was 4-50 degrees C, with the optimum at 37-40 degrees C. The optimum pH for growth was 7.0-8.0. The optimum pressure for growth was 0.1 MPa with tolerance up to 30 MPa. The main cellular phospholipids were phosphatidylglycerols (25 %), diphosphatidylglycerols (34 %) and a group of compounds tentatively identified as ammonium-containing phosphatidylserines (32 %); phosphatidylethanolamines (9 %) were minor components. The fatty acid composition was dominated by side chains of 16 : 0, 14 : 0 and 16 : 1. The G+C content of the genomic DNA was 42 mol%. On the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and the secondary structure of the V6 region, this organism was found to belong to the genus Marinilactibacillus and was closely related to Marinilactibacillus psychrotolerans M13-2(T) (99 %), Marinilactibacillus sp. strain MJYP.25.24 (99 %) and Alkalibacterium olivapovliticus strain ww2-SN4C (97 %). Despite the high similarity between their 16S rRNA gene sequences (99 %), the DNA-DNA hybridization levels were less than 20 %. On the basis of physiological and genetic characteristics, it is proposed that this organism be classified as a novel species, Marinilactibacillus piezotolerans sp. nov. The type strain is LT20T (=DSM 16108T=JCM 12337T).

Diversity of functional genes of methanogens, methanotrophs and sulfate reducers in deep-sea hydrothermal environments.

To contribute to the identification of methanogens, methanotrophs and sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in microbial communities from the 13 degrees N (East Pacific Rise) and Rainbow (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) hydrothermal vent fields, we investigated the diversity of mcrA, pmoA and dsrAB genes sequences. Clone libraries were obtained using DNA isolated from fragments of diffuse vents, sediment and in situ samplers. The clones were categorized by restriction fragment length polymorphism, and representatives of each group were sequenced. Sequences were related to that of hyperthermophilic (order Methanopyrales and family Methanocaldococcaceae), thermophilic and mesophilic (family Methanococcaceae) methanogens, thermophilic (proposed genus 'Methylothermus') and mesophilic type I methanotrophs, and hyperthermophilic (order Archaeoglobales), thermophilic (order Thermodesulfobacteriales) and mesophilic (family Desulfobulbaceae) SRB. Several of the obtained sequences were distantly related to the genes of cultivated organisms, providing evidence of the existence of novel lineages in the three functional groups. This study provides for the first time an insight into the diversity of several functional genes of deep-sea hydrothermal system microorganisms.

Shewanella profunda sp. nov., isolated from deep marine sediment of the Nankai Trough.

A novel piezotolerant, mesophilic, facultatively anaerobic, organotrophic, polarly flagellated bacterium (strain LT13a(T)) was isolated from a deep sediment layer in the Nankai Trough (Leg 190, Ocean Drilling Program) off the coast of Japan. This organism used a wide range of organic substrates as sole carbon and energy sources: pyruvate, glutamate, succinate, fumarate, lactate, citrate, peptone and tryptone. Oxygen, nitrate, fumarate, ferric iron and cystine were used as electron acceptors. Maximal growth rates were observed at a hydrostatic pressure of 10 MPa. Hydrostatic pressure for growth was in the range 0.1-50 MPa. Predominant cellular fatty acids were 16 : 1omega7c, 15 : 0 iso, 16 : 0 and 13 : 0 iso. The G+C content of the DNA was 44.9 mol%. On the basis of 16S rRNA gene sequences, strain LT13a(T) was shown to belong to the gamma-Proteobacteria, being closely related to Shewanella putrefaciens (98 %), Shewanella oneidensis (97 %) and Shewanella baltica (96 %). Levels of DNA homology between strain LT13a(T) and S. putrefaciens, S. oneidensis and S. baltica were <20 %, indicating that strain LT13a(T) represents a novel species. Genetic evidence and phenotypic characteristics showed that isolate LT13a(T) constitutes a novel species of the genus Shewanella. Because of the deep origin of the strain, the name Shewanella profunda sp. nov. is proposed, with LT13a(T) (=DSM 15900(T)=JCM 12080(T)) as the type strain.