Analysis of substrate specificity of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases involved in trichothecene toxin biosynthesis.

Trichothecenes are a structurally diverse family of toxic secondary metabolites produced by certain species of multiple fungal genera. All trichothecene analogs share a core 12,13-epoxytrichothec-9-ene (EPT) structure but differ in presence, absence and types of substituents attached to various positions of EPT. Formation of some of the structural diversity begins early in the biosynthetic pathway such that some producing species have few trichothecene biosynthetic intermediates in common. Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) play critical roles in formation of trichothecene structural diversity. Within some species, relaxed substrate specificities of P450s allow individual orthologs of the enzymes to modify multiple trichothecene biosynthetic intermediates. It is not clear, however, whether the relaxed specificity extends to biosynthetic intermediates that are not produced by the species in which the orthologs originate. To address this knowledge gap, we used a mutant complementation-heterologous expression analysis to assess whether orthologs of three trichothecene biosynthetic P450s (TRI11, TRI13 and TRI22) from Fusarium sporotrichioides, Trichoderma arundinaceum, and Paramyrothecium roridum can modify trichothecene biosynthetic intermediates that they do not encounter in the organism in which they originated. The results indicate that TRI13 and TRI22 could not modify the intermediates that they do not normally encounter, whereas TRI11 could modify an intermediate that it does not normally encounter. These findings indicate that substrate promiscuity varies among trichothecene biosynthetic P450s. One structural feature that likely impacts the ability of the P450s to use biosynthetic intermediates as substrates is the presence and absence of an oxygen atom attached to carbon atom 3 of EPT.

Does alteration of fumonisin production in Fusarium verticillioides lead to volatolome variation?

Fusarium verticillioides, a major fungal pathogen of maize, produces fumonisins, mycotoxins of global food safety concern. Control practices are needed to reduce the negative health and economic impacts of fumonisins. Therefore, we investigated volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by fumonisin-producing (wild-type) and nonproducing (mutant) strains of F. verticillioides. VOC emissions were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry following inoculation of maize kernels, and fumonisin accumulation was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Mutants emitted VOCs, including ethyl 3-methylbutanoate, that the wild type did not emit. In particular, ANOVA analysis showed significant differences between mutants and wild type for 4 VOCs which emission was correlated with absence of fumonisins. Exogenous ethyl 3-methylbutanoate reduced growth and fumonisin production in wild-type F. verticillioides, showing its potential in biocontrol. Together, our findings offer valuable insights into how mycotoxin production can impact VOC emissions from F. verticillioides and reveal a potential biocontrol strategy to reduce fumonisin contamination.

Cyclopiazonic acid in soft-ripened and blue cheeses marketed in the USA.

Strains of Penicillium camemberti and P. roqueforti are used in the production of soft-ripened and blue-veined cheeses. However, some strains can produce toxic secondary metabolites (mycotoxins), including α-cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), a neurotoxin. Data on the levels of CPA in cheeses marketed in the USA are extremely limited. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was adapted for measuring CPA in soft-ripened and blue-veined cheeses. Recoveries from cheese curds were 103 ± 27% (n = 30). A total of 254 samples of soft-ripened, blue and miscellaneous cheeses were examined. CPA was detected in 36/79 (45.6%) of soft-ripened cheeses and in 41/168 (24.4%) of blue-veined cheeses. Median levels in positive samples were 48.5 µg/kg and 30 µg/kg, respectively. The highest levels found were 3,820 µg/kg (in a Brie), 1,250 µg/kg (in a blue) and 7,900 µg/kg (in a Monte Enebro). The implication of such exposures is unknown, as a consensus on acceptable intake remains to be established.

Effects of trichothecene production by Trichoderma arundinaceum isolates from bean-field soils on the defense response, growth and development of bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris).

The trichothecene toxin-producing fungus Trichoderma arundinaceum has potential as a biological control agent. However, most biocontrol studies have focused only on one strain, IBT 40837. In the current study, three Trichoderma isolates recovered from bean-field soils produced the trichothecene harzianum A (HA) and trichodermol, the latter being an intermediate in the HA biosynthesis. Based on phylogenetic analysis, the three isolates were assigned to the species T. arundinaceum. Their genome sequences had a high degree of similarity to the reference IBT 40837 strain, in terms of total genome size, number of predicted genes, and diversity of putative secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters. HA production by these bean-field isolates conferred significant in vitro antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, which are some of the most important bean pathogens. Furthermore, the bean-field isolates stimulated germination of bean seeds and subsequent growth of above ground parts of the bean plant. Transcriptomic analysis of bean plants inoculated with these T. arundinaceum bean-field soil isolates indicated that HA production significantly affected expression of plant defense-related genes; this effect was particularly significant in the expression of chitinase-encoding genes. Together, these results indicate that Trichoderma species producing non-phytotoxic trichothecenes can induce defenses in plants without negatively affecting germination and development.

Effect of Farnesol in Trichoderma Physiology and in Fungal-Plant Interaction.

Farnesol is an isoprenoid intermediate in the mevalonate (MVA) pathway and is produced by the dephosphorylation of farnesyl diphosphate. Farnesol plays a central role in cell growth and differentiation, controls production of ubiquinone and ergosterol, and participates in the regulation of filamentation and biofilm formation. Despite these important functions, studies of farnesol in filamentous fungi are limited, and information on its effects on antifungal and/or biocontrol activity is scarce. In the present article, we identified the Trichoderma harzianum gene dpp1, encoding a diacylglycerol pyrophosphatase that catalyzes production of farnesol from farnesol diphosphate. We analyzed the function of dpp1 to address the importance of farnesol in Trichoderma physiology and ecology. Overexpression of dpp1 in T. harzianum caused an expected increase in farnesol production as well as a marked change in squalene and ergosterol levels, but overexpression did not affect antifungal activity. In interaction with plants, a dpp1-overexpressing transformant acted as a sensitizing agent in that it up-regulated expression of plant defense salicylate-related genes in the presence of a fungal plant pathogen. In addition, toxicity of farnesol on Trichoderma and plants was examined. Finally, a phylogenetic study of dpp1 was performed to understand its evolutionary history as a primary metabolite gene. This article represents a step forward in the acquisition of knowledge on the role of farnesol in fungal physiology and in fungus-environment interactions.

Identification of polyketide synthase genes required for aspinolide biosynthesis in Trichoderma arundinaceum.

The fungus Trichoderma arundinaceum exhibits biological control activity against crop diseases caused by other fungi. Two mechanisms that likely contribute to this activity are upregulation of plant defenses and production of two types of antifungal secondary metabolites: the sesquiterpenoid harzianum A (HA) and the polyketide-derived aspinolides. The goal of the current study was to identify aspinolide biosynthetic genes as part of an effort to understand how these metabolites contribute to the biological control activity of T. arundinaceum. Comparative genomics identified two polyketide synthase genes (asp1 and asp2) that occur in T. arundinaceum and Aspergillus ochraceus, which also produces aspinolides. Gene deletion and biochemical analyses in T. arundinaceum indicated that both genes are required for aspinolide production: asp2 for formation of a 10-member lactone ring and asp1 for formation of a butenoyl subsituent at position 8 of the lactone ring. Gene expression and comparative genomics analyses indicated that asp1 and asp2 are located within a gene cluster that occurs in both T. arundinaceum and A. ochraceus. A survey of genome sequences representing 35 phylogenetically diverse Trichoderma species revealed that intact homologs of the cluster occurred in only two other species, which also produced aspinolides. An asp2 mutant inhibited fungal growth more than the wild type, but an asp1 mutant did not, and the greater inhibition by the asp2 mutant coincided with increased HA production. These findings indicate that asp1 and asp2 are aspinolide biosynthetic genes and that loss of either aspinolide or HA production in T. arundinaceum can be accompanied by increased production of the other metabolite(s). KEY POINTS: • Two polyketide synthase genes are required for aspinolide biosynthesis. • Blocking aspinolide production increases production of the terpenoid harzianum A. • Aspinolides and harzianum A act redundantly in antibiosis of T. arundinaceum.

Characterization of Host-Specific Genes from Pine- and Grass-Associated Species of the Fusarium fujikuroi Species Complex.

The Fusarium fujikuroi species complex (FFSC) includes socioeconomically important pathogens that cause disease for numerous crops and synthesize a variety of secondary metabolites that can contaminate feedstocks and food. Here, we used comparative genomics to elucidate processes underlying the ability of pine-associated and grass-associated FFSC species to colonize tissues of their respective plant hosts. We characterized the identity, possible functions, evolutionary origins, and chromosomal positions of the host-range-associated genes encoded by the two groups of fungi. The 72 and 47 genes identified as unique to the respective genome groups were potentially involved in diverse processes, ranging from transcription, regulation, and substrate transport through to virulence/pathogenicity. Most genes arose early during the evolution of Fusarium/FFSC and were only subsequently retained in some lineages, while some had origins outside Fusarium. Although differences in the densities of these genes were especially noticeable on the conditionally dispensable chromosome of F. temperatum (representing the grass-associates) and F. circinatum (representing the pine-associates), the host-range-associated genes tended to be located towards the subtelomeric regions of chromosomes. Taken together, these results demonstrate that multiple mechanisms drive the emergence of genes in the grass- and pine-associated FFSC taxa examined. It also highlighted the diversity of the molecular processes potentially underlying niche-specificity in these and other Fusarium species.

Fusarium abutilonis and F. guadeloupense, two novel species in the Fusarium buharicum clade supported by multilocus molecular phylogenetic analyses.

This study was conducted to elucidate evolutionary relationships and species diversity within the Fusarium buharicum species complex (FBSC). We also evaluate the potential of these species to produce mycotoxins and other bioactive secondary metabolites. Maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses of sequences from portions of four marker loci (ITS rDNA, TEF1, RPB1, and RPB2) and the combined 4495 bp data set support recognition of seven genealogically exclusive species within the FBSC. Two of the three newly discovered species are formally described as F. abutilonis and F. guadeloupense based on concordance of gene genealogies and morphological data. Fusarium abutilonis induces leaf, stem, and root lesions on several weedy Malvaceae (Abution theophrasti, Anoda cristata, Sida spinosa) and a fabaceous host (Senna obtusifolia) in North America and also was recovered from soil in New Caledonia. Fusarium abutilonis, together with its unnamed sister, Fusarium sp. ex common marsh mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos) from Washington state, and F. buharicum pathogenic to cotton and kenaf in Russia and Iran, respectively, were strongly supported as a clade of malvaceous pathogens. The four other species of the FBSC are not known to be phytopathogenic; however, F. guadeloupense was isolated from human blood in Texas and soil in Guadeloupe. The former isolate is unique because it represents the only known case of a fusarial infection disseminated hematogenously by a species lacking microconidia and the only documented fusariosis caused by a member of the FBSC. Whole genome sequence data and extracts of cracked maize kernel cultures were analyzed to assess the potential of FBSC isolates to produce mycotoxins, pigments, and phytohormones.

Genus-wide analysis of Fusarium polyketide synthases reveals broad chemical potential.

The genus Fusarium includes pathogens of global concern to animal and plant health. Natural products (NPs) synthesized by Fusarium can contribute to pathogenesis or competitiveness of the fungus in the environment and to animal diseases, including cancer and neural tube defects. Polyketide synthases (PKSs) are a family of large, multi-domain enzymes that are required for synthesis of most fungal NPs. To gain insight into the NP potential of Fusarium, we retrieved 2974 PKS gene sequences from the genomes of 206 Fusarium species. Phylogenetic analysis resolved these PKSs, along with 118 previously described PKSs from other fungi, into 123 clades. Based on results from previous studies, we propose that PKSs in the same clade generally synthesize the same polyketide, which is structurally distinct from polyketides synthesized by PKSs in other clades. We predict that the 123 clades potentially produce 113 structurally distinct families of polyketide-derived NPs because some NPs (e.g., zearalenone) require two PKSs for their synthesis. Collectively, the clades include PKSs required for synthesis of six NPs whose production has not previously been reported in Fusarium, including two NPs with significant pharmaceutical interest: chaetoviridin and a statin. Our results highlight the NP diversity of Fusarium and the potential of the genus to produce metabolites with medical and other applications.

A-to-I mRNA editing controls spore death induced by a fungal meiotic drive gene in homologous and heterologous expression systems.

Spore killers are meiotic drive elements that can block the development of sexual spores in fungi. In the maize ear rot and mycotoxin-producing fungus Fusarium verticillioides, a spore killer called SkK has been mapped to a 102-kb interval of chromosome V. Here, we show that a gene within this interval, SKC1, is required for SkK-mediated spore killing and meiotic drive. We also demonstrate that SKC1 is associated with at least 4 transcripts, 2 sense (sense-SKC1a and sense-SKC1b) and 2 antisense (antisense-SKC1a and antisense-SKC1b). Both antisense SKC1 transcripts lack obvious protein-coding sequences and thus appear to be noncoding RNAs. In contrast, sense-SKC1a is a protein-coding transcript that undergoes A-to-I editing to sense-SKC1b in sexual tissue. Translation of sense-SKC1a produces a 70-amino-acid protein (Skc1a), whereas the translation of sense-SKC1b produces an 84-amino-acid protein (Skc1b). Heterologous expression analysis of SKC1 transcripts shows that sense-SKC1a also undergoes A-to-I editing to sense-SKC1b during the Neurospora crassa sexual cycle. Site-directed mutagenesis studies indicate that Skc1b is responsible for spore killing in Fusarium verticillioides and that it induces most meiotic cells to die in Neurospora crassa. Finally, we report that SKC1 homologs are present in over 20 Fusarium species. Overall, our results demonstrate that fungal meiotic drive elements like SKC1 can influence the outcome of meiosis by hijacking a cell's A-to-I editing machinery and that the involvement of A-to-I editing in a fungal meiotic drive system does not preclude its horizontal transfer to a distantly related species.

Use of the volatile trichodiene to reduce Fusarium head blight and trichothecene contamination in wheat.

Fusarium graminearum is the primary cause of Fusarium head blight (FHB), one of the most economically important diseases of wheat worldwide. FHB reduces yield and contaminates grain with the trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON), which poses a risk to plant, human and animal health. The first committed step in trichothecene biosynthesis is formation of trichodiene (TD). The volatile nature of TD suggests that it could be a useful intra or interspecies signalling molecule, but little is known about the potential signalling role of TD during F. graminearum-wheat interactions. Previous work using a transgenic Trichoderma harzianum strain engineered to emit TD (Th + TRI5) indicated that TD can function as a signal that can modulate pathogen virulence and host plant resistance. Herein, we demonstrate that Th + TRI5 has enhanced biocontrol activity against F. graminearum and reduced DON contamination by 66% and 70% in a moderately resistant and a susceptible cultivar, respectively. While Th + TRI5 volatiles significantly influenced the expression of the pathogenesis-related 1 (PR1) gene, the effect was dependent on cultivar. Th + TRI5 volatiles strongly reduced DON production in F. graminearum plate cultures and downregulated the expression of TRI genes. Finally, we confirm that TD fumigation reduced DON accumulation in a detached wheat head assay.

DNA Sequence-Based Identification of Fusarium: A Work in Progress.

Accurate species-level identification of an etiological agent is crucial for disease diagnosis and management because knowing the agent's identity connects it with what is known about its host range, geographic distribution, and toxin production potential. This is particularly true in publishing peer-reviewed disease reports, where imprecise and/or incorrect identifications weaken the public knowledge base. This can be a daunting task for phytopathologists and other applied biologists that need to identify Fusarium in particular, because published and ongoing multilocus molecular systematic studies have highlighted several confounding issues. Paramount among these are: (i) this agriculturally and clinically important genus is currently estimated to comprise more than 400 phylogenetically distinct species (i.e., phylospecies), with more than 80% of these discovered within the past 25 years; (ii) approximately one-third of the phylospecies have not been formally described; (iii) morphology alone is inadequate to distinguish most of these species from one another; and (iv) the current rapid discovery of novel fusaria from pathogen surveys and accompanying impact on the taxonomic landscape is expected to continue well into the foreseeable future. To address the critical need for accurate pathogen identification, our research groups are focused on populating two web-accessible databases (FUSARIUM-ID v.3.0 and the nonredundant National Center for Biotechnology Information nucleotide collection that includes GenBank) with portions of three phylogenetically informative genes (i.e., TEF1, RPB1, and RPB2) that resolve at or near the species level in every Fusarium species. The objectives of this Special Report, and its companion in this issue (Torres-Cruz et al. 2022), are to provide a progress report on our efforts to populate these databases and to outline a set of best practices for DNA sequence-based identification of fusaria.

FUSARIUM-ID v.3.0: An Updated, Downloadable Resource for Fusarium Species Identification.

Species within Fusarium are of global agricultural, medical, and food/feed safety concern and have been extensively characterized. However, accurate identification of species is challenging and usually requires DNA sequence data. FUSARIUM-ID (http://isolate.fusariumdb.org/blast.php) is a publicly available database designed to support the identification of Fusarium species using sequences of multiple phylogenetically informative loci, especially the highly informative ∼680-bp 5' portion of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha (TEF1) gene that has been adopted as the primary barcoding locus in the genus. However, FUSARIUM-ID v.1.0 and 2.0 had several limitations, including inconsistent metadata annotation for the archived sequences and poor representation of some species complexes and marker loci. Here, we present FUSARIUM-ID v.3.0, which provides the following improvements: (i) additional and updated annotation of metadata for isolates associated with each sequence, (ii) expanded taxon representation in the TEF1 sequence database, (iii) availability of the sequence database as a downloadable file to enable local BLAST queries, and (iv) a tutorial file for users to perform local BLAST searches using either freely available software, such as SequenceServer, BLAST+ executable in the command line, and Galaxy, or the proprietary Geneious software. FUSARIUM-ID will be updated on a regular basis by archiving sequences of TEF1 and other loci from newly identified species and greater in-depth sampling of currently recognized species.

Fusarium chaquense, sp. nov, a novel type A trichothecene-producing species from native grasses in a wetland ecosystem in Argentina.

The Chaco wetland is among the most biologically diverse regions in Argentina. In collections of fungi from asymptomatic native grasses (Poaceae) from the wetlands, we identified isolates of Fusarium that were morphologically similar to F. armeniacum, but distinct from it by their production of abundant microconidia. All the isolates had identical, or nearly identical, partial sequences of TEF1 and RPB2. But they were distinct from reference sequences from F. armeniacum and Fusarium species closely related to it. Phylogenetic analysis of 34 full-length housekeeping gene sequences retrieved from whole genome sequences of three Chaco wetland isolates, 29 genes resolved the isolates as an exclusive clade within the F. sambucinum species complex. Based on results of the morphological and phylogenetic analysis, we concluded that the Chaco wetland isolates are a distinct and novel species, herein described as Fusarium chaquense, sp. nov., which is closely related to F. armeniacum. F. chaquense in culture can produce the trichothecenes T-2 and HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol, diacetoxyscirpenol, and monoacetoxyscirpenol, as well as beauvericin and the pigment aurofusarin. Genome sequence analysis also revealed the presence of three previously described loci required for trichothecene biosynthesis. This research represents the first study of Fusarium in a natural ecosystem in Argentina.

A Novel Trichothecene Toxin Phenotype Associated with Horizontal Gene Transfer and a Change in Gene Function in Fusarium.

Fusarium trichothecenes are among the mycotoxins of most concern to food and feed safety. Production of these mycotoxins and presence of the trichothecene biosynthetic gene (TRI) cluster have been confirmed in only two multispecies lineages of Fusarium: the Fusarium incarnatum-equiseti (Incarnatum) and F. sambucinum (Sambucinum) species complexes. Here, we identified and characterized a TRI cluster in a species that has not been formally described and is represented by Fusarium sp. NRRL 66739. This fungus is reported to be a member of a third Fusarium lineage: the F. buharicum species complex. Cultures of NRRL 66739 accumulated only two trichothecenes, 7-hydroxyisotrichodermin and 7-hydroxyisotrichodermol. Although these are not novel trichothecenes, the production profile of NRRL 66739 is novel, because in previous reports 7-hydroxyisotrichodermin and 7-hydroxyisotrichodermol were components of mixtures of 6-8 trichothecenes produced by several Fusarium species in Sambucinum. Heterologous expression analysis indicated that the TRI13 gene in NRRL 66739 confers trichothecene 7-hydroxylation. This contrasts the trichothecene 4-hydroxylation function of TRI13 in other Fusarium species. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that NRRL 66739 acquired the TRI cluster via horizontal gene transfer from a close relative of Incarnatum and Sambucinum. These findings provide insights into evolutionary processes that have shaped the distribution of trichothecene production among Fusarium species and the structural diversity of the toxins.

Mycotoxin Production in Fusarium According to Contemporary Species Concepts.

Fusarium is one of the most important genera of plant-pathogenic fungi in the world and arguably the world's most important mycotoxin-producing genus. Fusarium species produce a staggering array of toxic metabolites that contribute to plant disease and mycotoxicoses in humans and other animals. A thorough understanding of the mycotoxin potential of individual species is crucial for assessing the toxicological risks associated with Fusarium diseases. There are thousands of reports of mycotoxin production by various species, and there have been numerous attempts to summarize them. These efforts have been complicated by competing classification systems based on morphology, sexual compatibility, and phylogenetic relationships. The current depth of knowledge of Fusarium genomes and mycotoxin biosynthetic pathways provides insights into how mycotoxin production is distributedamong species and multispecies lineages (species complexes) in the genus as well as opportunities to clarify and predict mycotoxin risks connected with known and newly described species. Here, we summarize mycotoxin production in the genus Fusarium and how mycotoxin risk aligns with current phylogenetic species concepts.

A PCR method to identify ochratoxin A-producing Aspergillus westerdijkiae strains on dried and aged foods.

Ochratoxins are a group of mycotoxins that frequently occur as contaminants in agricultural commodities and foods, including dry-cured meats and cheeses. The fungus Aspergillus westerdijkiae is frequently isolated from aged foods and can produce ochratoxin A (OTA). However, individual strains of the fungus can have one of two OTA production phenotypes (chemotypes): OTA production and OTA nonproduction. Monitoring and early detection of OTA-producing fungi in food are the most effective strategies to manage OTA contamination. Therefore, we examined genome sequence data from five A. westerdijkiae strains isolated from the surface of cheese from southern Italy to identify genetic markers indicative of the twoOTA chemotypes. This analysis revealed a naturally occurring deletion of the OTA regulatory gene, otaR, in an OTA-nonproducing isolate.We used this information to design a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method that could identify A. westerdijkiae and distinguish between the two OTA chemotypes. In this method, the PCR primers were complementary to conserved sequences flanking otaR and yielded different-sized amplicons from strains with the different chemotypes. The primers did not yield ota-region-specific amplicons from other OTA-producing species. Because the method is specific to A. westerdijkiae and can distinguish between the two OTA chemotypes, it has potential to significantly improve OTA monitoring programs.

Volatile Organic Compound Profile Fingerprints Using DART-MS Shows Species-Specific Patterns in Fusarium Mycotoxin Producing Fungi.

Fungal volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are low-molecular weight fungal metabolites that have high vapor pressure at ambient temperatures and can function as airborne signals. Here, we report a VOC study of several different species of Fusarium. Direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS) was applied for non-invasive VOC fingerprinting of Fusarium isolates growing under standardized conditions. A large number of ions were detected from the headspaces of the Fusarium species sampled here. Ions were detected with distinctively high concentrations in some species. While there were few VOCs produced by only one species, the relative concentrations of VOCs differed between species. The methodology has potential for convenient detection and identification of Fusarium contamination in agricultural commodities.

Correction to: Identification and distribution of gene clusters required for synthesis of sphingolipid metabolism inhibitors in diverse species of the filamentous fungus Fusarium.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via the original article.

No to Neocosmospora: Phylogenomic and Practical Reasons for Continued Inclusion of the Fusarium solani Species Complex in the Genus Fusarium.

This article is to alert medical mycologists and infectious disease specialists of recent name changes of medically important species of the filamentous mold FusariumFusarium species can cause localized and life-threating infections in humans. Of the 70 Fusarium species that have been reported to cause infections, close to one-third are members of the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC), and they collectively account for approximately two-thirds of all reported Fusarium infections. Many of these species were recently given scientific names for the first time by a research group in the Netherlands, but they were misplaced in the genus Neocosmospora In this paper, we present genetic arguments that strongly support inclusion of the FSSC in Fusarium There are potentially serious consequences associated with using the name Neocosmospora for Fusarium species because clinicians need to be aware that fusaria are broadly resistant to the spectrum of antifungals that are currently available.