Treatment of Shoulder Cartilage Defects in Athletes.

Articular cartilage defects in the glenohumeral joint may be found in laborers, the elderly, and young athletes, among others. Various factors can contribute to cartilage damage, including prior surgery, trauma, avascular necrosis, inflammatory arthritis, joint instability, and osteoarthritis. There is a wide variety of treatment options, from conservative treatment, injections, and surgical options, including arthroscopic debridement, microfracture, osteochondral autograft transfer, osteochondral graft transplantation, autologous chondrocyte implantation, and the newly emerging techniques such as biologic augmentation. There is a challenge to determine the optimal treatment options, especially for young athletes, due to limited outcomes in the literature. However, there are many options which are viable to address osteochondral defects of the glenohumeral joint.

The Impact of Neurological Disorders on Clinical and Functional Outcomes after Shoulder Arthroplasty: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Patients with pre-existing neurologic disorders present a unique set of challenges for shoulder arthroplasty (SA) surgeons due to the presence of concomitant contractures, muscle weakness, and spasticity, which may affect outcomes and complication rates after shoulder arthroplasty. The goal of this systematic review was to evaluate the clinical and functional outcomes after SA in patients pre-existing with neurologic disorders, focusing on complication and reoperation rates. METHODS: This systematic review was performed in adherence to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines outlined by Cochrane Collaboration. A search of PubMed, the Medline Library, and EMBASE from inception until September 2023 was conducted to obtain studies reporting on outcomes after SA in patients with neurological disorders. Study demographics and information on outcomes including patient-reported outcomes and complication rates were collected. The methodological quality of included primary studies was appraised using the MINORS scoring system. RESULTS: Twenty articles published between 1997 and 2023 met inclusion criteria. In total, 13,126 patients with neurological conditions with 7 different neurological disorders (Parkinson's disease (PD), epilepsy and seizures, cerebral palsy (CP), poliomyelitis, Charcot neuropathy (CN), cerebrovascular disease (CVD) and multiple sclerosis (MS)) were included. The mean patient age was 64.3 years (range, 33.0 - 75.8 years), 51.4% of patients were male, and the mean postoperative follow-up time was 5.1 years (range, 1.4 - 9.9 years). PD was the most reported neurological disorder (9 studies, 8,033 patients), followed by epilepsy (4 studies, 3,783 patients), and MS (1 study, 1,077 patients). While these patients did experience improvements in outcomes following SA, high complication and revision rates were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with neurologic disorders demonstrate improvements in pain and function after SA but have higher reported complication and revision rates when compared with patients without neurologic conditions. This systematic review offers valuable data for both the surgeon and patient regarding anticipated clinical results and possible complications from SA in patients with neurologic disorders that may aid in shared decision-making when considering SA.

Combined Medial Collateral Ligament Reconstruction and Polyethylene Exchange for Valgus Instability Following Total Knee Arthroplasty.

Valgus instability can occur after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) due to traumatic medial collateral ligament (MCL) injury, component malpositioning, or progressive ligamentous laxity. Although revision TKA with exchange of the polyethylene to a varus-valgus-constrained liner can reduce laxity due to MCL insufficiency, isolated liner exchange in the setting of collateral ligament insufficiency may lead to greater strain at the cement-bone or implant-cement interface and possibly a greater rate of aseptic loosening. Anatomic MCL reconstruction can be performed in conjunction with liner exchange to restore stability and reduce strain compared with liner exchange alone. The purpose of this Technical Note is to describe a technique for MCL reconstruction and liner exchange for treatment of valgus instability after TKA.

Editorial Commentary: Even With a High Retear Rate, Shoulder Capsular Reconstruction Outcomes are Promising, But Are We Seeing an Increase in Strength?

Superior capsular reconstruction was developed to restore patient biomechanics for patients with massive irreparable rotator cuff tears that preclude shoulder arthroplasty. Recent studies have shown excellent short-term clinical outcomes and improved pain and functional scores but high rates of complications including retear, loss of fixation, or incomplete healing. An alternative option, reverse total shoulder arthroplasty, is a reliable and safe method to ensure good muscle strength and return to play in this patient group.

Editorial Commentary: Both 3-Dimensional Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography Are Valuable for Determination of Glenoid and Humeral Bone Loss in Patients With On- and Off-Track Shoulder Instability.

Improving the modalities for advanced glenohumeral joint imaging has been an important area to address in the field of orthopaedic surgery. The current gold standard for imaging glenoid and humeral bone loss in patients with shoulder instability, 3-dimensional (3D) computed tomography (CT), provides high-quality 3D images of bones but comes with a cost of extra time, additional imaging because of the need for an additional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan, and exposure to radiation. Three-dimensional MRI is a promising solution that can produce high-contrast images depicting both bony structures and soft tissues. Multiple 3D MRI sequences have been studied, with the FRACTURE (fast field echo resembling a CT using restricted echo-spacing) sequence showing high comparability of bony measurements to 3D CT scans, as well as the ability for widespread clinical use. Recent research has shown minimal differences in 3D CT and 3D MRI and has confirmed that 3D imaging does provide clinically relevant data for determination of on- and off-track instability. Finally, the gold standard for determination of bone loss is the measurement of deficiencies in the surface area of the glenoid using the best-fit circle with a diameter line measurement. This is most practical for day-to-day clinical use.

Effect of osteophyte removal on simulated range of motion using 3-dimensional preoperative planning software for reverse total shoulder arthroplasty.

Background: Glenohumeral osteophytes (OPs) can adversely influence postoperative range of motion (ROM) following shoulder arthroplasty due to mechanical impingement. Though commercial three-dimensional preoperative planning software (3D PPS) is available to simulate ROM before and after OP resection, little is known about the magnitude of effect OPs and their subsequent removal have on simulated glenohumeral ROM. Methods: Included patients were 1) indicated for reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA) using 3D PPS and 2) presented with glenoid and/or humeral head OPs on preoperative two-dimensional computed tomography (2D-CT) imaging. Thirty patients met the inclusion criteria (9 females, 21 males; mean age 70.45 ± 4.99 years, range 63-80 years). All subjects (n = 30) presented with humeral OPs (mean volume: 2905.16 mm3, range 109.1-11,246 mm3), while 11 subjects also presented with glenoid OPs (mean volume 108.06 mm3, range 37.59-791.4 mm3). Preoperative CTs were used to calculate OP volume (mm3) and OP circumferential extent (clockface). Mean clockface position for circumferential humeral OPs originated at 6:09 (range 4:30-7:15) and extended to 8:51 (range 8:15-10:15). Mean clockface position for glenoid OPs originated at 3:00 (range 2:00-5:00) and extended to 6:16 (range 3:00-7:30). 3D implants on PPS were standardized to achieve 0° of version, 0° of inclination and 4 mm of net lateralization. Thirty-nine and thirty-six mm glenospheres were used for males and females, respectively. 3D PPS was used to evaluate simulated ROM differences before and after OP removal in the planes of adduction (ADD), abduction, internal rotation (IR), external rotation (ER), extension, and flexion. Impact of OP volume and circumferential extent on pre and postop removal ROM were also analyzed. Results: Humeral OP removal significantly increased impingement-free ADD, IR, ER, extension, and flexion. Removal of larger (mm3) humeral OPs positively correlated with improvement in IR (R = 0.452, P = .011), ER (R = 0.394, P = .033), and flexion (R = 0.500, P < .01). Greater circumferential extent of humeral OPs correlated with worse preremoval ROM in the planes of ADD (R = 0.364, P = .02) and extension (R = 0.403, P = .04), and improvements in ER postop removal (R = 0.431, P = .03). Conclusion: Humeral OP removal significantly increases impingement-free ADD, IR, ER, extension, and flexion in simulated 3D PPS models following rTSA. Magnitude of simulated ROM improvement is influenced by initial humeral OP volume and circumferential clockface extent. Surgeons should consider these effects when using 3D PPS for rTSA planning to optimize postoperative ROM prognostics.

Outcomes of total shoulder arthroplasty in patients with prior anterior shoulder instability: minimum 5-year follow-up.

BACKGROUND: Patients with a history of anterior shoulder instability (ASI) commonly progress to glenohumeral arthritis or even dislocation arthropathy and often require total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA). The purposes of this study were to (1) report patient-reported outcomes (PROs) after TSA in patients with a history of ASI, (2) compare TSA outcomes of patients whose ASI was managed operatively vs. nonoperatively, and (3) report PROs of TSA in patients who previously underwent arthroscopic vs. open ASI management. METHODS: Patients were included if they had a history of ASI and had undergone TSA ≥5 years earlier, performed by a single surgeon, between October 2005 and January 2017. The exclusion criteria included prior rotator cuff repair, hemiarthroplasty, or glenohumeral joint infection before the index TSA procedure. Patients were separated into 2 groups: those whose ASI was previously operatively managed and those whose ASI was treated nonoperatively. This was a retrospective review of prospective collected data. Data collected was demographic, surgical and subjective. The PROs used were the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, Single Assessment Numerical Evaluation score, QuickDASH (Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand) score, and 12-item Short Form physical component score. Failure was defined as revision TSA surgery, conversion to reverse TSA, or prosthetic joint infection. Kaplan-Meier survivorship analysis was performed. RESULTS: This study included 36 patients (27 men and 9 women) with a mean age of 56.4 years (range, 18.8-72.2 years). Patients in the operative ASI group were younger than those in the nonoperative ASI group (50.6 years vs. 64.0 years, P < .001). Operative ASI patients underwent 10 open and 11 arthroscopic anterior stabilization surgical procedures prior to TSA (mean, 2 procedures; range, 1-4 procedures). TSA failure occurred in 6 of 21 patients with operative ASI (28.6%), whereas no failures occurred in the nonoperative ASI group (P = .03). Follow-up was obtained in 28 of 30 eligible patients (93%) at an average of 7.45 years (range, 5.0-13.6 years). In the collective cohort, the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, Single Assessment Numerical Evaluation score, QuickDASH (Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand) score, and 12-item Short Form physical component score significantly improved, with no differences in the postoperative PROs between the 2 groups. We found no significant differences when comparing PROs between prior open and prior arthroscopic ASI procedures or when comparing the number of prior ASI procedures. Kaplan-Meier analysis demonstrated a 79% 5-year survivorship rate in patients with prior ASI surgery and a 100% survivorship rate in nonoperatively managed ASI patients (P = .030). CONCLUSION: At mid-term follow-up, patients with a history of ASI undergoing TSA can expect continued improvement in function compared with preoperative values. However, TSA survivorship is decreased in patients with a history of ASI surgery compared with those without prior surgery.

Postoperative Radiographic Outcomes Following Primary Open Coracoid Transfer (Bristow-Latarjet) Vary in Definition, Classification, and Imaging Modality: A Systematic Review.

PURPOSE: To analyze radiographic outcomes by conventional radiography, computed tomography (CT), or both and complication rates of open coracoid transfer at a minimum of 12-months follow-up. METHODS: A literature search was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, using PubMed, Medline (Ovid), and EMBASE library databases. Inclusion criteria were clinical studies reporting on open Latarjet as the primary surgical procedure(revision coracoid transfer after failed prior stabilization excluded) with postoperative radiographic outcomes at a minimum mean 1-year follow-up. Patient demographics, type of postoperative imaging modality, and radiographic outcomes and complications including graft union, osteoarthritis, and osteolysis were systematically reviewed. Data were summarized as ranges of reported values for each outcome metric. Each radiographic outcome was graphically represented in a Forest plot with point estimates of the incidence of radiographic outcomes with corresponding 95% confidence intervals and I2. RESULTS: Thirty-three studies met inclusion criteria, with a total of 1,456 shoulders. The most common postoperative imaging modality was plain radiography only (n = 848 [58.2%]), both CT and radiography (n = 287 [19.7%]), and CT only (n = 321 [22.1%]). Overall, the reported graft union rate ranged from 75% to 100%, of which 79.8% (n = 395) were detected on plain radiography. The most common reported postoperative radiographic complications after the open coracoid transfer were osteoarthritis (range, 0%-100%, pooled mean 28%), graft osteolysis (range, 0%-100%, pooled mean 30%), nonunion (range, 0%-32%, pooled mean 5.1%), malpositioned graft (range, 0%-75%, pooled mean 14.75%), hardware issues (range, 0%-9.1%, pooled mean 5%), and bone block fracture (range, 0%-8%, pooled mean 2.1%). Graft healing was achieved in a majority of cases (range, 75%-100%). CONCLUSION: Postoperative radiographic outcomes after open coracoid transfer vary greatly in definition, classification, and imaging modality of choice. Greater consistency in postoperative radiographic outcomes is essential to evaluate graft healing, osteolysis, and nonunion. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV, systematic review of Level III-IV studies.

Biomechanical Evaluation of the 2 Different Levels of Coracoid Graft Positions in the Latarjet Procedure for Anterior Shoulder Instability.

Background: In the Latarjet procedure, the ideal placement of the coracoid graft in the medial-lateral position is flush with the anterior glenoid rim. However, the ideal position of the graft in the superior-inferior position (sagittal plane) for restoring glenohumeral joint stability is still controversial. Purpose: To compare coracoid graft clockface positions between the traditional 3 to 5 o'clock and a more inferior (for the right shoulder) 4 to 6 o'clock with regard to glenohumeral joint stability in the Latarjet procedure. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: A total of 10 fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were tested in a dynamic, custom-built robotic shoulder model. Each shoulder was loaded with a 50-N compressive load while an 80-N force was applied in the anteroinferior axes at 90° of abduction and 60° of shoulder external rotation. Four conditions were tested: (1) intact, (2) 6-mm glenoid bone loss (GBL), (3) Latarjet procedure fixed at 3- to 5-o'clock position, and (4) Latarjet procedure fixed at 4- to 6-o'clock position. The stability ratio (SR) and degree of lateral humeral displacement (LHD) were recorded. A 1-factor random-intercepts linear mixed-effects model and Tukey method were used for statistical analysis. Results: Compared with the intact state (1.77 ± 0.11), the SR was significantly lower after creating a 6-mm GBL (1.14 ± 0.61, P = .009), with no significant difference in SR after Latarjet 3 to 5 o'clock (1.51 ± 0.70, P = .51) or 4 to 6 o'clock (1.55 ± 0.68, P = .52). Compared with the intact state (6.48 ± 2.24 mm), LHD decreased significantly after GBL (3.16 ± 1.56 mm, P < .001) and Latarjet 4 to 6 o'clock (5.48 ± 3.39 mm, P < .001). Displacement decreased significantly after Latarjet 3 to 5 o'clock (4.78 ± 2.50 mm, P = .04) compared with the intact state but not after Latarjet 4 to 6 o'clock (P = .71). Conclusion: The Latarjet procedure in both coracoid graft positions (3-5 and 4-6 o'clock) restored the SR to the values measured in the intact state. A more inferior graft position (fixed at 4-6 o'clock) may improve shoulder biomechanics, but additional work is needed to establish clinical relevance. Clinical Relevance: An inferior coracoid graft fixation, the 4- to 6-o'clock position, may benefit in restoring normal shoulder biomechanics after the Latarjet procedure.

Utility of Talus Osteochondral Allograft Augmentation for Varying Hill-Sachs Lesion Sizes: A Cadaveric Study.

Background: Humeral head reconstruction with fresh osteochondral allografts (OCA) serves as a potential treatment option for anatomic reconstruction. More specifically, talus OCA is a promising graft source because of its high congruency with a dense cartilaginous surface. Purpose: To analyze the surface geometry of the talus OCA plug augmentation for the management of shoulder instability with varying sizes of Hill-Sachs lesions (HSLs). Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Seven fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were tested in this study. The humeral heads were analyzed using actual patients' computed tomography scans. Surface laser scan analysis was performed on 7 testing states: (1) native state; (2) small HSL; (3) talus OCA augmentation for small HSL; (4) medium HSL; (5) talus OCA augmentation for medium HSL; (6) large HSL; and (7) talus OCA augmentation for large HSL. OCA plugs were harvested from the talus allograft and placed in the most medial and superior aspect of each HSL lesion. Surface congruency was calculated as the mean absolute error and the root mean squared error in the distance. A 1-way repeated-measures analysis of variance was performed to evaluate the effects of the difference in the HSL size and associated talus OCA plugs on surface congruency and the HSL surface area. Results: The surface area analysis of the humeral head with the large (1469 ± 75 mm2), medium (1391 ± 81 mm2), and small (1230 ± 54 mm2) HSLs exhibited significantly higher surface areas than the native state (1007 ± 88 mm2; P < .001 for all sizes). The native state exhibited significantly lower surface areas as compared with after talus OCA augmentation for large HSLs (1235 ± 63 mm2; P < .001) but not for small or medium HSLs. Talus OCA augmentation yielded improved surface areas and congruency after treatment in small, medium, and large HSLs (P < .001). Conclusion: Talus OCA plug augmentation restored surface area and congruency across all tested HSLs, and the surface area was best improved with the most common HSLs-small and medium. Clinical Relevance: Talus OCA plugs may provide a viable option for restoring congruity of the shoulder in patients with recurrent anterior glenohumeral instability and an HSL.

Meniscotibial Ligament Insufficiency Increases Force on the Posterior Medial Meniscus Root.

BACKGROUND: Posterior medial meniscus root (PMMR) tears are a challenge to assess and treat. However, the forces sustained at the PMMR are yet to be fully characterized. In addition, it has been shown that meniscotibial ligament (MTL) injuries happen before PMMR tears, suggesting that insufficiency of the MTL results in a change of forces acting on the PMMR. PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the 3-dimensional forces acting on the PMMR in the intact, MTL cut, and MTL tenodesis states. It was hypothesized that the MTL cut state would increase medial shear forces seen at the PMMR, whereas the medial shear force in the MTL tenodesis state would return PMMR forces to that of the intact state. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Ten fresh-frozen cadaveric knees were tested in 3 states (intact, MTL cut, and tenodesis). A 3-axis load cell was installed below the posterior tibial plateau and attached to the enthesis of the PMMR. The specimen was mounted to a load frame that applied an axial load, an internal torque, and an external torque. The amount of compression-tension, mediolateral shear force, and anteroposterior shear force acting on the PMMR was measured. RESULTS: When the joint was loaded in compression, the MTL cut state significantly increased compression of the PMMR (P = .0368). The tenodesis state did not significantly restore forces of the PMMR (P = .008). When the joint was loaded in external torque, the MTL cut state significantly increased compression (P < .0001) and significantly decreased anterior shear on the PMMR (P = .0003). The tenodesis state did not significantly restore forces on the PMMR to the intact state (P < .0001). Increased flexion angle significantly increased medial shear forces of the PMMR when the joint was loaded in compression (P < .007 at every angle). CONCLUSION: When evaluated biomechanically, MTL insufficiency resulted in increased compressive force at the PMMR. A single-anchor centralization procedure did not restore PMMR forces to that of the intact state. Increased knee flexion angle resulted in increased medial shear force on the PMMR. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The findings in this study provide clinicians information on PMMR forces when the MTL is disrupted. These data can aid in the decision-making for adding an MTL repair to augment PMMR repairs.

Surgical Pearls and Pitfalls for Anatomic Acromioclavicular/Coracoclavicular Ligament Reconstruction.

Injuries to the acromioclavicular (AC) joint are common shoulder injuries in contact/collision athletes. There are a number of different surgical options that can be used to treat these injuries. The majority of these injuries can be treated nonoperatively with an early return to play for type I and II injuries. Surgical intervention and AC/CC (coracoclavicular) ligament reconstruction have excellent postoperative outcomes if complications can be avoided. This review will focus on the pearls and pitfalls for anatomic AC and CC ligament reconstruction for high-grade AC joint injuries.

Correlation of Acromial Morphology With Risk and Direction of Shoulder Instability: An MRI Study.

BACKGROUND: The influence of bony morphology on the development of posterior shoulder instability is not well known. PURPOSE: To determine if acromial morphology, as measured on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is associated with posterior or anterior shoulder instability. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: MRI measurements of posterior acromial coverage (PAC), posterior acromial height (PAH), posterior acromial tilt (PAT), and anterior acromial coverage (AAC) were completed for 3 separate matched groups who underwent surgical intervention: posterior instability, anterior instability, and a comparison group of patients who underwent arthroscopic surgery for snapping scapula. Inclusion criteria were patients with recurrent instability <40 years of age without multidirectional instability, glenoid bone loss >13.5%, or glenoid retroversion >10%. RESULTS: Overall, 37 patients were included in each group. PAC was significantly less in the posterior instability group than in the anterior instability and comparison groups (68.3° vs 88.7° vs 81.7°; P < .001). PAH was significantly greater in the posterior group than in the anterior instability group (11.0 mm vs -0.1 mm; P < .001) and comparison group (0.7 mm; P < .001). There was no difference between the posterior and anterior groups in terms of PAT or AAC (P = .45 and P = .05, respectively). PAT was significantly smaller in the posterior instability group than the comparison group (55.2° vs 62.2°; P = .026). The anterior and comparison groups were not significantly different in PAH or PAT (P = .874 and P = .067, respectively) but were significantly different in AAC (P = .026). CONCLUSION: A higher and flatter posterior acromion, as measured on preoperative MRI, appears to be associated with patients who require arthroscopic capsulolabral repair due to posterior shoulder instability. This information may help clinicians to both diagnose and predict the need for operative intervention for patients with posterior labral tears.

Combined Arthroscopic Scapulothoracic Bursectomy, Partial Scapulectomy, and Pectoralis Minor Release for the Treatment of Snapping Scapular Syndrome.

Snapping scapula syndrome (SSS) is a source of pain and discomfort in patients. It is not uncommon for patients who present with SSS to have some degree of scapular dysfunction, especially with the tightness of the pectoralis minor (PM) muscle. In this Technical Note, we demonstrate our preferred technique for arthroscopic scapulothoracic bursectomy and partial scapulectomy with concomitant pectoralis minor release for the treatment of symptomatic SSS and PM tightness. In the treatment of these patients, PM release is beneficial because arthroscopic scapulothoracic bursectomy or partial scapulectomy alone may result in residual scapular dyskinesis.

Patient-Specific Instrumentation for Medial Closing Wedge Distal Femoral Osteotomy With Patellar Osteochondral Allograft.

The primary indications for performing a medial closing wedge distal femoral osteotomy are valgus knee malalignment, lateral knee compartment overload, lateral meniscus insufficiency, and/or lateral compartment osteoarthritis or cartilage damage. Without correction of this malalignment, there is an increased risk for chondral damage in the lateral and patellofemoral compartment of the knee. The optimal candidates for this procedure are young, active individuals with moderate to severe arthritis in the lateral compartment. Recently, preoperative planning for high tibial and distal femoral osteotomies (HTOs and DFOs) using 3-dimensional (3D) patient-specific instrumentation (PSI) has increased in popularity. Successful patient outcomes have been reported using this technique. This Technical Note illustrates our preferred technique that uses 3D PSI in addition to a patellar OCA transplant when treating a symptomatic cartilage lesion associated with genu valgum.

A Systemic and Local Comparison of Senescence in an Acute Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury-A Pilot Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Senescence, a characteristic of cellular aging and inflammation, has been linked to the acceleration of osteoarthritis. The purpose of this study is to prospectively identify, measure, and compare senescent profiles in synovial fluid and peripheral blood in patients with an acute knee injury within 48 h. METHODS: Seven subjects, aged 18-60 years, with an acute ACL tear with effusion were prospectively enrolled. Synovial fluid and peripheral blood samples were collected and analyzed by flow cytometry, using senescent markers C12FDG and CD87. The senescent versus pro-regenerative phenotype was probed at a gene and protein level using qRT-PCR and multiplex immunoassays. RESULTS: C12FDG and CD87 positive senescent cells were detected in the synovial fluid and peripheral blood of all patients. Pro-inflammatory IL-1ß gene expression measured in synovial fluid was significantly higher (p = 0.0156) than systemic/blood expression. Senescent-associated factor MMP-3 and regenerative factor TIMP-2 were significantly higher in synovial fluid compared to blood serum. Senescent-associated factor MMP-9 and regenerative factor TGFß-2 were significantly elevated in serum compared to synovial fluid. Correlation analysis revealed that C12FDG++/CD87++ senescent cells in synovial fluid positively correlated with age-related growth-regulated-oncogene (ρ = 1.00, p < 0.001), IFNγ (ρ = 1.00, p < 0.001), IL-8 (ρ = 0.90, p = 0.0374), and gene marker p16 (ρ = 0.83, p = 0.0416). CONCLUSIONS: There is an abundance of senescent cells locally and systemically after an acute ACL tear without a significant difference between those present in peripheral blood compared to synovial fluid. This preliminary data may have a role in identifying strategies to modify the acute environment within the synovial fluid, either at the time of acute ligament injury or reconstruction surgery.

Biomechanical Evaluation of Posterior Shoulder Instability With a Clinically Relevant Posterior Glenoid Bone Loss Model.

BACKGROUND: Existing biomechanical studies of posterior glenoid bone loss and labral pathology are limited by their use of anterior instability models, which differ in both orientation and morphology and have been performed in only a single, neutral arm position. PURPOSE: To evaluate the biomechanical effectiveness of a posterior labral repair in the setting of a clinically relevant posterior bone loss model in various at-risk arm positions. STUDY DESIGN: Controlled laboratory study. METHODS: Ten fresh-frozen cadaveric shoulders were tested in 7 consecutive states using a 6 degrees of freedom robotic arm: (1) native, (2) posterior labral tear (6-9 o'clock), (3) posterior labral repair, (4) mean posterior glenoid bone loss (7%) with labral tear, (5) mean posterior glenoid bone loss with labral repair, (6) large posterior glenoid bone loss (28%) with labral tear, and (7) large posterior glenoid bone loss with labral repair. Bone loss was created using 3-dimensional printed computed tomography model templates. Biomechanical testing consisted of 75 N of posterior-inferior force and 75 N of compression at 60° and 90° of flexion and scaption. Posterior-inferior translation, lateral translation, and peak dislocation force were measured for each condition. RESULTS: Labral repair significantly increased dislocation force independent of bone loss state between 10.1 and 14.8 N depending on arm position. Dislocation force significantly decreased between no bone loss and small bone loss (11.9-13.5 N), small bone loss and large bone loss (9.4-14.3 N), and no bone loss and large bone loss (21.2-26.5 N). Labral repair significantly decreased posterior-inferior translation compared with labral tear states by a range of 1.0 to 2.3 mm. In the native state, the shoulder was most unstable in 60° of scaption, with 29.9 ± 6.1-mm posterior-inferior translation. CONCLUSION: Posterior labral repair improved stability of the glenohumeral joint, and even in smaller to medium amounts of posterior glenoid bone loss the glenohumeral stability was maintained with labral repair in this cadaveric model. However, a labral repair with large bone loss could not improve stability to the native state. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: This study shows that larger amounts of posterior glenoid bone loss (>25%) may require bony augmentation for adequate stability.

Use of Computed Tomography in the Evaluation of Anterior Shoulder Instability: Possible Effect on Surgical Management.

BACKGROUND: Glenoid bone loss is a critical factor in the management of anterior shoulder instability (ASI). Computed tomography (CT) is often considered the gold standard to evaluate glenoid bone loss, but it is associated with negative factors such as radiation. Thus, interest exists as to when orthopaedic surgeons need a CT scan to guide decision-making when treating ASI. PURPOSE: To determine whether information gained from a shoulder CT scan alters orthopaedic surgeons' management plan for ASI and, secondarily, to determine whether surgeon- and patient-specific factors affect whether a CT scan changes treatment and which clinical factors are most important in surgical decision-making. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: A questionnaire composed of 24 ASI vignettes was administered to Herodicus Society members, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons Neer Circle members, and sports medicine fellowship-trained orthopaedic surgeons. Participants chose their recommended surgical treatment from the options of arthroscopic Bankart repair, open Bankart repair, bony reconstruction procedure, or other based on patient history, radiographs, and magnetic resonance imaging. Participants were then shown CT images and asked whether their treatment plan changed and, if not, whether the CT scan was not necessary or had reinforced their decision. Generalized linear mixed-effects logistic regression modeling was performed to assess the influence of vignette and respondent characteristics on treatment decisions. RESULTS: A total of 74 orthopaedic surgeons completed the survey; 96% were fellowship trained (sports medicine, 50%; shoulder and elbow surgery, 41%), and 66% practiced in academic settings. CT imaging did not change the selected treatment strategy in 75.6% of responses. In cases when management did not change, surgeons reported that the CT scan reinforced their decision in 53.4% of responses and was not necessary for decision-making in 22.2% of responses. Decision-making was more likely to be changed after CT in male patients and those with off-track lesions. CONCLUSION: Information gained from a CT scan did not alter treatment decision-making in three-quarters of vignettes among surgeons experienced in the management of ASI. The finding that CT scans did alter the treatment plan in nearly a quarter of cases is not insignificant, and it appears that in patients with borderline glenoid track status and few other risk factors for recurrence after arthroscopic stabilization, CT imaging is more likely to change management.

Outcomes of Open Versus Arthroscopic Treatment of HAGL Tears.

BACKGROUND: Lesions that involve humeral avulsions of the glenohumeral ligament (HAGLs), although less common, are primary contributors to recurrent events of dislocation and subluxation of the glenohumeral joint. PURPOSE: To describe the clinical presentation, examination, and surgical outcomes of patients presenting with HAGL lesions who underwent repair using an arthroscopic or open technique. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: A multicenter retrospective review of prospectively collected data was performed of skeletally mature patients without glenohumeral arthritis who presented with HAGL lesions and subsequently underwent arthroscopic or open repair between 2005 and 2017. Independent variables included patient characteristics, clinical presentation, physical examination findings, and arthroscopic findings. Dependent variables included pre- and postoperative Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation (SANE) score, Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI) score, and range of motion outcomes. RESULTS: Eighteen patients diagnosed with a HAGL lesion who underwent primary arthroscopic repair (n = 7) or open repair (n = 11) were included. There were 17 male patients and 1 female patient with a mean age of 24.9 years (range, 16-38 years). Mean follow-up duration was 50.9 months (range, 24-160 months). Seventeen patients (94.4%) reported pain as the most common symptom, and 7 (38.9%) reported sensation of instability. Scores significantly improved from pre- to postoperative for the arthroscopic and open groups (P < .001): SANE (mean ± SD; arthroscopic, 30.7 ± 15.7 to 92.1 ± 12.2; open, 45.5 ± 8.50 to 90.7 ± 5.24) and WOSI (arthroscopic, 51.4 ± 11.4 to 2.49 ± 3.70; open, 45.5 ± 7.37 to 11.5 ± 5.76). The magnitude of improvement in SANE scores was significantly higher for patients treated arthroscopically (Δ60.0; open, Δ46.5; P = .012). Postoperative WOSI scores were also significantly better in the arthroscopic cohort (2.49 ± 3.70; open, 11.5 ± 5.76; P = .00094). CONCLUSION: Symptomatic HAGL tears present primarily with pain as opposed to instability, necessitating a high index of suspicion for injury. The tears may be treated successfully with an arthroscopic or open technique with significant improvements in patient-reported outcomes and stability.

Short-term functional outcomes of reverse shoulder arthroplasty following three-dimensional planning is similar whether placed with a standard guide or patient-specific instrumentation.

BACKGROUND: Preoperative assessment of the glenoid and surgical placement of the initial guidewire are important in implant positioning during reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (rTSA). Three-dimensional (3D) computed tomography and patient-specific instrumentation (PSI) have improved the placement of the glenoid component, but the impact on clinical outcomes remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to compare short-term clinical outcomes after rTSA based on an intraoperative technique for central guidewire placement in a cohort of patients who had preoperative 3D planning. METHODS: A retrospective matched analysis was performed from a multicenter prospective cohort of patients who underwent rTSA with preoperative 3D planning and a minimum of 2-year clinical follow-up. Patients were divided into 2 cohorts based on the technique used for glenoid guide pin placement: (1) standard manufacture guide (SG) that was not customized or (2) PSI. Patient-reported outcomes (PROs), active range of motion, and strength measures were compared between the groups. The American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score was used to assess the minimum clinically important difference, substantial clinical benefit, and patient acceptable symptomatic state. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-eight patients met the study criteria: 56 underwent SGs and 122 underwent PSI. There was no difference in PROs between cohorts. There were no significant differences in the percentage of patients who achieved an American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons minimum clinically important difference, substantial clinical benefit, or patient acceptable symptomatic state. Improvements in internal rotation to the nearest spinal level (P < .001) and at 90° (P = .002) were higher in the SG group, but likely explained by differences in glenoid lateralization used. Improvements in abduction strength (P < .001) and external rotation strength (P = .010) were higher in the PSI group. CONCLUSION: rTSA performed after preoperative 3D planning leads to similar improvement in PROs regardless of whether an SG or PSI is used intraoperatively for central glenoid wire placement. Greater improvement in postoperative strength was observed with the use of PSI, but the clinical significance of this finding is unclear.