Close-up observations on the spawning behavior of a captive Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus).

The spawning behavior of a Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus) is described based on up-close observation of a captive female. The squid was first transferred from a 10-ton tank to a polystyrene plastic box containing 45 liters of seawater. About one hour later, the mantle-contraction rate increased rapidly, followed by a brief convulsion of the mantle and arms and a whitening of the body. The mantle contractions become shallow and rapid, and several seconds later, semitransparent jelly presumably from the nidamental glands emerged from the funnel and passed between the ventral pair of arms. Approximately 90 seconds after the egg mass first emerged, the female began ejecting oocytes through the funnel into the egg mass using rapid, powerful mantle contractions. Soon after the oocytes were ejected, translucent strands (presumably sperm) emanated from the buccal membrane. The female continued to eject oocytes for approximately two minutes, after which the mantle convulsed, and the mantle-contraction rate decreased slowly for about one minute until the contractions stopped. The squid died soon afterwards.

Orientation Patterns of Japanese Flying Squid Todarodes pacificus Embryos within Egg Masses and Responses of Paralarvae to Light.

Squid embryos develop in the perivitelline fluid inside the chorion, which is an envelope secreted by the ovarian follicle. The onset of hatching initiates local dissolution of the chorion when the hatching gland enzyme facilitates the release of the developed paralarvae. In the present study, we investigated the pre-hatching behavioral patterns of Todarodes pacificus embryos and their responses to light after hatching. Observations of orientation were conducted using embryos developing inside chorions embedded within intact egg masses, while phototactic experiments were conducted on paralarvae that hatched from these egg masses. Within the restricted chorion and along the animal-vegetal axis, the embryos demonstrated a variety of orientation patterns that were categorized as swirls, glides, and somersaults. The contributions of these orientations to enhance oxygen diffusion and stimulate paralarval swimming immediately after hatching are discussed. Paralarvae exhibited normal diel vertical migration and responded positively to light sources. Vertical migration and phototaxis in T. pacificus paralarvae could have great adaptive significance because they hatch in neritic environments and are transported by ocean currents during their planktonic life.

Structure and properties of the egg mass of the ommastrephid squid Todarodes pacificus.

The Japanese flying squid, Todarodes pacificus, is thought to spawn neutrally buoyant egg masses that retain a specific location in the water column by floating at the interface between water layers of slightly different densities. It is important to understand the physical process that determines the vertical distribution of the egg masses to predict their horizontal drift in relation to embryo survival and subsequent recruitment. Here, mesocosm experiments were conducted in a 300 m3 tank by creating a thermally stratified (17-22°C) water column to obtain egg masses. A cage net methodology was developed to sustain egg masses for detailed observation. We measured the density of the egg masses of T. pacificus, and used this information to infer the vertical distribution patterns of the egg masses at the spawning grounds (Tsushima Strait, Japan). When measured separately, the density of the outer jelly of each egg mass was 2.7 σ units higher than that of the surrounding water. The outer jelly and the specific gravity of embedded individual eggs (~1.10) cause the egg masses to have very slight negative buoyancy relative to the water in which they are formed. Analysis of the vertical profile of the spawning ground showed that water density (σθ) increased sharply at ~30 m depth; thus, egg masses might settle above the pycnocline layer. In conclusion, we suggest that T. pacificus egg masses might retain their location in the water column by floating at the interface between water layers of slightly different densities, which happen to be above the pycnocline layer (actual depth varies seasonally/annually) in the Tsushima Strait between Korea and Japan.

Observations on the spawning behavior, egg masses and paralarval development of the ommastrephid squid Todarodes pacificus in a laboratory mesocosm.

The spawning behavior of ommastrephid squids has never been observed under natural conditions. Previous laboratory observations of Japanese flying squid (Todarodes pacificus) suggest that pre-spawning females might rest on the continental shelf or slope before they ascend above the pycnocline to spawn, and that the egg masses might settle in the pycnocline. Here, two mesocosm experiments were conducted in a 300 m(3) tank that was 6 m deep to investigate this hypothesis. In the first experiment, a thermocline (2.5-3.5 m) was established in the tank by creating a thermally stratified (17-22°C) water column. In the second experiment, the temperature was uniform (22°C) at all depths. Prior to spawning, females did not rest on the tank floor. In the stratified water column, egg masses remained suspended in the thermocline, but in an unstratified water column, they settled on the tank bottom, collapsed and were infested by microbes, resulting in abnormal or nonviable embryos. Eleven females spawned a total of 18 egg masses (17-80 cm in diameter), indicating that females can spawn more than once when under stress. Paralarvae hatched at stage 30/31 and survived for up to 10 days, allowing us to observe the most advanced stage of paralarvae in captivity. Paralarvae survived after consumption of the inner yolk, suggesting they might have fed in the tank.