Recent developments and challenges in algal protein and peptide extraction strategies, functional and technological properties, bioaccessibility, and commercial applications.

The burgeoning demand for protein, exacerbated by population growth and recent disruptions in the food supply chain, has prompted a rapid exploration of sustainable protein alternatives. Among these alternatives, algae stand out for their environmental benefits, rapid growth, and rich protein content. However, the widespread adoption of algae-derived proteins faces significant challenges. These include issues related to harvesting, safety, scalability, high cost, standardization, commercialization, and regulatory hurdles. Particularly daunting is the efficient extraction of algal proteins, as their resilient cell walls contain approximately 70% of the protein content, with conventional methods accessing only a fraction of this. Overcoming this challenge necessitates the development of cost-effective, scalable, and environmentally friendly cell disruption techniques capable of breaking down these rigid cell walls, often laden with viscous polysaccharides. Various approaches, including physical, chemical, and enzymatic methods, offer potential solutions, albeit with varying efficacy depending on the specific algal strain and energy transfer efficiency. Moreover, there remains a pressing need for further research to elucidate the functional, technological, and bioaccessible properties of algal proteins and peptides, along with exploring their diverse commercial applications. Despite these obstacles, algae hold considerable promise as a sustainable protein source, offering a pathway to meet the escalating nutritional demands of a growing global population. This review highlights the nutritional, technological, and functional aspects of algal proteins and peptides while underscoring the challenges hindering their widespread adoption. It emphasizes the critical importance of establishing a sustainable trajectory for food production, with algae playing a pivotal role in this endeavor.

Determination of the Fatty Acid Profile and Lipid Quality Indices in Selected Infant Formulas.

The quality of fat in infant milk is determined by the fatty acid profile and selected indices describing nutritional value. The aim of this study was to analyze the fatty acid profile and lipid quality indices of infant formulas and compare these data with breast milk. The study material included seven types of cow's milk-based follow-on infant formulas and samples of mature breast milk. The determination of fatty acids was performed using the gas chromatography (GC) technique. Lipid quality indices were calculated based on the relevant equations. Infant formulas contained more medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and oleic acid. Moreover, they contained more than 30% more linoleic acid and more than twice as much α-linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. In contrast, significant amounts of trans fatty acids (TFAs) were noted in breast milk, while infant formulas contained trace amounts. Infant formulas were characterized by a lower AI (Index of Atherogenicity) (0.49-0.98) and TI (Index of Thrombogenicity) (0.48-0.60) and a higher H/H (hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic) ratio (1.93-2.30) compared with breast milk (1.47, 1.60, and 1.21, respectively). The composition of infant formulas depended on the type of fat added at the production stage and differed significantly from breast milk, particularly in terms of polyunsaturated fatty acids and lipid quality indices.

The Influence of the Lactation Period and the Type of Milk on the Content of Amino Acids and Minerals in Human Milk and Infant Formulas.

(1) Background: This study investigated the effect of the lactation period and the type of infant formula on the content of amino acids and selected minerals in an infant's food; (2) Methods: The study material consisted of breast milk (colostrum, n = 38; transitional milk, mature milk, n = 38) and three types of infant formulas (for first and follow-on feeding). Amino acid content was determined using an automatic amino acid analyzer, while minerals were determined by the atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) technique; (3) Results: Breast milk and infant formulas contained a full range of essential amino acids. In most cases, the content of individual amino acids and minerals decreased with increasing lactation. In infant formulas, there were higher contents of phenylalanine, glutamic acid, proline, serine, and tyrosine in follow-on milk (p < 0.05). The EAA/TAA ratio in breast milk and infant formulas was similar, but the milk differed in their qualitative composition. Infant formulas contained levels of individual minerals that were several times higher-especially Mg, Ca, Mn, and Fe.; (4) Conclusions: Colostrum is more concentrated, and the level of amino acids and minerals is higher in it; as the milk matures, it decreases. In most cases, the content of individual amino acids and minerals is higher in infant formulas than in human milk, which is established through strict Codex Alimentarius procedures to ensure the proper development of infants.

The Occurrence of Squalene in Human Milk and Infant Formula.

(1) Background: The aim of the conducted research was to analyze the squalene content in infants' food. (2) Methods: The experimental material included human milk collected from 100 women from Poland and three different infant formulas. The breast milk fat was extracted according to the Rose-Gottlieb method (AOAC), while the squalene content was determined using the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method. (3) Results: The highest amount of squalene was identified in the milk of women aged 18-25 (p < 0.05), and its content in milk decreased with the age of lactating women. Moreover, the greatest amount of squalene was identified in milk from the first lactation period (colostrum), while in mature milk, its content was more than two times lower. There was a correlation between breastfeeding BMI and the squalene content in milk (r = 0.78). (4) Conclusions: The conducted research shows that the level of squalene in human milk depends on physiological factors such as the lactation period and individual factors (age, BMI). The results of the conducted research indicate that breast milk is richer in squalene than modified milk. This study shows the importance of breastfeeding and indicates the superiority of breast milk over infant formulas.

Caffeine, Paraxanthine, Theophylline, and Theobromine Content in Human Milk.

This study aimed to assess the content of caffeine and its metabolites-paraxanthine, theophylline, and theobromine-in breast milk according to selected factors. Samples of human milk were collected from 100 women living in the east-northeast region of Poland. Information on the consumption of beverages and foods containing caffeine was collected using a 3 day food record. The determination of caffeine and its metabolite content was performed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). This study research showed that more caffeine was found in the milk of women living in cities, with secondary education, aged 34-43, and also in milk from the 3rd and 4th lactation periods (p ≤ 0.05). Factors such as place of residence, level of education, age, and stage of lactation influenced the nutritional choices of breastfeeding women, which had an impact on the level of caffeine and its metabolites in breast milk. A positive correlation was found between the consumption of caffeine with food and drinks and its level in human milk.

Assessment of Fish Quality Based on the Content of Heavy Metals.

The aim of this study was to estimate the fish quality in terms of the Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn contents. The research material was the muscle tissue of the fish crucian carp (Carassius carassius Linnaeus, 1758), flounder (Platichthys flesus Linnaeus, 1758), Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata Linnaeus, 1758), mackerel (Scomber scombrus Linnaeus, 1758), Blue grenadier (Macruronus novaezelandiae Hector, 1871), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum, 1792), tench (Tinca tinca Linnaeus, 1758), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758), Walleye pollock (Gadus chalcogrammus Pallas, 1814) and perch (Perca fluviatilis Linnaeus, 1758.). Heavy metals were determined with the atomic absorption spectrometry method (AAS). Significantly high concentrations of zinc (19.52 mg/kg wet weight), copper (0.77 mg/kg) and iron (6.95 mg/kg) were found in the muscles of crucian carp (p < 0.05) compared to the other fish studied, whereas Walleye pollock had a higher content of manganese (0.266 mg/kg) (p < 0.05). All studied fish species do not pose a threat to humans from these four metals. This was indicated by quality indexes (THQ and HI) whose values were below one. The values of these metals also did not exceed the maximum allowable concentrations established by the FAO (1983), but monitoring both the aquatic environment and the fish living there is necessary, for example, for the time-changing abiotic and biotic factors that can cause an increase in metals in the organs of fish.

Risk Factors for Eating Disorders and Perception of Body in Young Adults Associated with Sex.

(1) Background: The integrated approach to the prevention and treatment of eating disorders (EDs) requires knowledge and can be used only when specific risk factors are known. The aim of this study was to examine the differences in food choices and eating behavior between males and females; (2) Methods: This study comprised 148 females and 27 males aged from 18 to 26-years-old (MEAN ± SD = 21.4 ± 1.86 years old). Information about EDs was obtained from four different measures: the body mass index (BMI), the eating disorder screen for primary care (ESP), a standardized and validated questionnaire called "My Eating Habits" and the food frequency questionnaire with 10 answers (FFQ-10); (3) Results: The risk for developing eating disorders was detected in nearly 67% of respondents. It was also shown that EDs were more common in females and how body weight affected the way individuals feel about themselves. Females showed more unhealthy eating habits, which contributed to dietary restrictions and emotional overeating, as they were also afraid of gaining weight. The frequency of eating meat and drinking alcohol was higher in males, whereas eating legume seeds was less frequent in females. (4) Conclusions: This study opens a new field, which will help health care professionals recognize the problems with eating disorders and treat them based on different sex characteristics.

Antioxidant Properties of Fruit and Vegetable Whey Beverages and Fruit and Vegetable Mousses.

The study assesses the antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, total flavonoids content and lipophilic pigments (ß-carotene, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b) content in homemade and marketed fruit and vegetable whey beverages and fruit and vegetable mousses. All of the tests were performed using spectrophotometric methods. The highest polyphenol content was found in the homemade green whey beverage W1G (541.95 mg/100 g) and the lowest in the market green whey beverage W2G (46.18 mg/100 g). In the fruit and vegetable mousses under study, the highest content of polyphenolic compounds was determined in the red mousse R3 (76.41 mg/100 g). The highest content of flavonoids was observed in the homemade orange whey beverage W1O (63.06 mg/100 g) and in the green mousse G2 (69.80 mg/100 g). The values of the antioxidant activity of whey beverages and mousses varied depending on the composition. The highest content of ß-carotene was identified in homemade orange whey beverage (4.36 mg/100 g) and in orange mousses (in range 1.10-2.24 mg/100 g), while chlorophylls a and b-in homemade green whey beverage W1G (3.00 mg/100 g and 1.31 mg/100 g respectively) and in green mousses (chlorophyll a in range 0.54 to 1.42 mg/100 g and chlorophyll b in range 0.13 to 0.32 mg/100 g).

The Impact of the Method Extraction and Different Carrot Variety on the Carotenoid Profile, Total Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties of Juices.

The study assesses the antioxidant activity (AA), carotenoid profile and total phenolic content (TPC) of carrot juices obtained from three different varieties (black, orange and yellow) and prepared using high- (HSJ) and low-speed juicer (LSJ). The AA assessment was carried out using four assays (DPPH, ABTS, PCL ACW and PCL ACL). The content of carotenoids was conducted by high performance liquid chromatography equipped with a diode array detector (HPLC-DAD) method, while the total phenolic content by the spectrophotometric method. It was shown that orange carrot juices contain more carotenoids than yellow and black carrot juices, approximately ten and three times more, respectively. The total carotenoid content in orange carrot juice made by the HSJ was higher (by over 11%) compared to juice prepared by the LSJ. The highest total phenolic content was noticed in black carrot juices, while the lowest in orange carrot juices. In black carrot juices, a higher range of TPC was found in juices made by HSJ, while in the case of the orange and yellow carrots, the highest content of TPC was detected in juices prepared by the LSJ. AA of the juices was highly dependent on the carrot variety, juice extraction method. The most assays confirmed the highest AA values in black carrot juices. Furthermore, it was shown that the HSJ method is more preferred to obtain orange and yellow carrot juices with higher antioxidant properties, while the LSJ method is more suitable for black carrot juice extraction.