Multi-century (635-year) spring season precipitation reconstruction from northern Pakistan revealed increasing extremes.

The Hindu Kush Himalaya region is experiencing rapid climate change with adverse impacts in multiple sectors. To put recent climatic changes into a long-term context, here we reconstructed the region's climate history using tree-ring width chronologies of climate-sensitive Cedrus deodara and Pinus gerardiana. Growth-climate analysis reveals that the species tree-growth is primarily limited by moisture stress during or preceding the growing season, as indicated by a positive relationship between the chronology and precipitation and scPDSI, and a negative one with temperature. We have reconstructed 635 years (1384-2018 CE) of February-June precipitation using a robust climate reconstruction model that explains about 53% variance of the measured precipitation data. Our reconstruction shows several dry and wet episodes over the reconstruction period along with an increase in extreme precipitation events during recent centuries or years. Long, very wet periods were observed during the following years: 1392-1393, 1430-1433, 1456-1461, 1523-1526, 1685-1690, 1715-1719, 1744-1748, 1763-1767, 1803-1806, 1843-1846, 1850-1855, 1874-1876, 1885-1887, 1907-1909, 1921-1925, 1939-1944, and 1990-1992, while long dry periods were observed during the following years: 1398-1399, 1464-1472, 1480-1484, 1645-1649, 1724-1727, 1782-1786, 1810-1814, 1831-1835, 1879-1881, 1912-1918, 1981-1986, 1998-2003, and 2016-2018 CE. We found predominantly short-term periodicity cycles of 2.0, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.6-2.7, 2.9, 3.3, 4.8, 8.1-8.3, and 9.4-9.6 years in our reconstruction. Spatial correlation analyses reveal that our reconstruction is an effective representation of the precipitation variability in the westerly climate-dominated areas of Pakistan and adjacent regions. In addition to the influence of regional circulation systems like western disturbances, we found possible teleconnections between the precipitation variability in northern Pakistan and broader-scale climate modes or phases like AMO and ENSO. The study also highlights the prospects of tree-ring application to explore linkages between western disturbance, increasing intensity and frequency of extreme climate events, and analysis of long-term atmospheric circulation over the western Himalayan region.

The spatial distribution of potentially toxic elements in the mountain forest topsoils (the Silesian Beskids, southern Poland).

Progressive industrialisation and urbanisation in recent decades have dramatically affected the soil cover and led to significant changes in its properties, which inevitably affect the functioning of other components of the forest ecosystems. The total content of Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe, Cr, Cu, Ni, As, and Hg was studied in twenty-five plots at different heights in the topsoil (organic and humus horizons) formed from the Carpathian flysch in the area of the Silesian Beskids (Western Carpathians). The aim of this article is to analyse the spatial distribution of potentially toxic elements in the mountain forest topsoil in different types of plant communities and to determine the relationship between altitude and potentially toxic elements contamination. The soils studied are acidic or very acidic, with an average range of 3.8 (H2O) and 2.9 (KCl). Concentrations of the metals Cd, Zn, Fe, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Hg on the plots that were analysed are within the range of permissible standards for forest ecosystems in Poland, while Pb and As exceed the permissible standards for this type of ecosystem. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient showed a high correlation between Fe-Cr (r(32) = 0.879, Pb-Hg r(32) = 0.772, Ni-Cr r(32) = 0.738, Zn-Cd r(32) = 0.734, and Cu-Hg r(32) = 0.743, and a moderate statistically significant positive correlation between Cu-Pb r(32) = 0.667 and As-Pb r(32) = 0.557. No correlation was found between altitude and the occurrence of potentially toxic elements. The geo-accumulation index (Igeo) index, on the other hand, indicates that Pb, As, and Cd have the highest impact on soil contamination in all study plots: it classifies soils from moderately to strongly polluted. The enrichment factor (EF) obtained for As and Hg indicates significant-to-very high enrichment in all areas studied. The potential ecological risk index (PLI) calculated for the sites indicates the existence of pollution in all areas examined. The highest risk categories (considerable to very high) are associated with cadmium and mercury.

Relationships between Heavy Metal Concentrations in Greater Celandine (Chelidonium majus L.) Tissues and Soil in Urban Parks.

Anthropogenic ecological ecosystems create favourable conditions for the growth of the nitrophilous medicinal species Chelidonium majus in six urban parks in Southern Poland. This study focuses on the concentrations of trace elements in the soils, leaves, stems, and rhizomes of greater celandine. The soil samples were taken only in the humus horizon (A), which averaged approximately 15 cm in thickness under the clumps of Ch. majus. Regarding the reaction, the soil samples tested can be described as slightly acidic (5.6-6.8 in KCl) to alkaline (7.1-7.4 in H2O). Organic carbon content at all sites is high, ranging from 3.2% to 13.6%, while the highest total nitrogen (Nt) content is 0.664%. The average total phosphorus (Pt) content in all samples is 548.8 mg/kg (and its range is 298-940 mg/kg), such values indicating its anthropogenic origin. In terms of heavy metals, Zn has the highest content in the analysed soil samples compared to the other elements, and its range is from 394.50 mg/kg to 1363.80 mg/kg in soil. In rhizomes, Zn also has the highest values (178.7-408.3 mg/kg), whereas, in stems and leaves, it varies (from 80.6 to 227.5 and from 57.8 to 297.4 mg/kg, respectively). Spearman's rank correlation showed high correlations between the content of Pb, Zn, Cd, and As in the soil and rhizomes of Ch. majus. Despite soil contamination with Pb, Cd, and Zn, Ch. majus does not accumulate them in its tissues. However, the translocation of Hg and Cr from rhizomes to leaves was observed. The different concentrations of metals in each park result from the degree of diversity of the parent rocks on which the soil was formed.

Long-Term Vegetation Changes and Socioeconomic Effects of River Engineering in Industrialized Areas (Southern Poland).

The exploitation of mineral resources associated with human mining activities leads to the degradation of both terrestrial and aquatic biocenotic systems. The drastic disturbance of water relations as a result of the relocation of the riverbed of the Biala Przemsza River (southern Poland) for coal and filler sand mining will lead to changes in plant ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to determine and compare the diversity and distribution of vegetation in the Biala Przemsza valley in sections of channel straightening with the old riverbed and areas undisturbed by engineering works against the background of land use in temporal and spatial aspects. The results of the ecological and phytosociological studies showed that the composition of flora and vegetation types varied. Within the transformed riverbed, anthropogenic mixed forests with species characteristic of different ecological systems are developing, whereas the non-regulated section of the river is overgrown by an alder riparian forest with an almost complete species composition for this plant community. The highest Simpson's biodiversity index was found in the anthropogenically disturbed section of the river (0.86), and in the undisturbed section, it was 0.83. Both sections of the river were dominated by species of the family Compositae, Poaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Rosaceae and Apiaceae. The diversity of the flora in the transformed sections of the valley is determined by the presence of mosaics and microhabitats, as well as the nature of the surrounding vegetation, which is reflected in the ecological requirements of the flora concerning light preference (moderate light [56.25%]), and almost 90% of the flora from the area of the regulated section of the valley develops on humus-poor and mineral-humus soils. Although this area has lost its original natural function, it is now valuable for selected economic and social functions, especially in highly urbanized regions.

Ecosystem Services and Linkages of Naturally Managed Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A. DC. Forests with Local Communities across Contiguous Mountainous Ranges in Pakistan.

The local community of the Suleiman and Hindukush mountain systems in Pakistan has largely depended on the natural resources of the environment since ancient times. The ecosystem of these regions is under huge pressure due to a lack of awareness and the uncontrolled interference of communal, commercial, security, political, and ecological conditions. The present study was designed to illuminate the link between mountain society and the consumption of the benefits from Monotheca phytocoenoses using the ecosystem services concept from the sphere of the socio-ecological system to cultural relations. The use of this approach is very important due to the visible role and dominant status of Monotheca vegetation within the ecological system of the region. M. buxifolia is strongly connected with both local and cultural traditions and is counted as a key species, particularly for high-mountain inhabitants. We report that Monotheca phytocoenoses provide several services including shelter, food, fodder, medicines, and wood, etc., to the indigenous community and is highly valued in the local culture because of the poor economic condition of the society. The concept of this cultural keystone species is crucial for understanding ecosystem services and must be considered for the protection and conservation of these habitats. The results of field and social studies have shown that the stable maintenance of Monotheca phytocoenosis forests ensures the existence of key species as the most important providers of ecosystem services, e.g., provisioning, regulation, maintenance and cultural services, indicating the close relations between society and the protection of mountain areas. According to the results obtained, the mountains community of the studied area believes that tree species like M. buxifolia, F. palmata, O. ferruginea, P. granatum, A. modesta, J. regia, etc., are the key components contributing to the function of both the mountain ecosystem and communities' well-being. This approach will be extremely useful for ensuring an inclusive management of the socio-ecological system of the Hindukush and Suleiman Mountain ranges of Pakistan.

Soil and Vegetation Development on Coal-Waste Dump in Southern Poland.

As an anthropogenic element of urban landscapes, coal heaps undergo changes due to both natural and anthropogenic factors. The aim of this study was to determine the common development of soil under the influence of vegetation succession against a background of environmental conditions. Vegetation changes and soil properties were analysed along a transect passing through a heap representing a particular succession stage. It was found that changes in the development of vegetation were closely related to the stages of coal-waste disposal, where the initial, transitional, and terminal stages were distinguished. The mean range of pH (H2O) values in the profiles was 6.75 ± 0.21 (profile 1), 7.2 ± 0.31 (profile 2), 6.3 ± 1.22 (profile 3), and 5.38 ± 0.42 (profile 4). The organic carbon (OC) content in all samples was high, ranging from 9.6% to 41.6%. The highest content of total nitrogen (Nt) was found (1.132%) in the algal crust and sub-horizon of the organic horizon (Olfh-0.751%) and humus (A-0.884) horizon in profile 3 under the initial forest. Notable contents of available elements were found in the algal shell for P (1588 mg∙kg-1) and Mg (670 mg∙kg-1). Soil organic matter content was mainly dominated by n-alkanes (n-C11-n-C34) and alkanoic acids (C5-C20). Phytene and Phytadiene were typical for the algal crust on the initial pedigree. The initiation of succession was determined by the variation in grain size of the waste dumped on the heap and the variation in relief and associated habitat mosaic. Algal crusts forming on clay-dust mineral and organic material accumulating in the depressions of the site and at the foot of the heap can be regarded as the focus of pedogenesis.

The Perception of Urban Forests in Post-Mining Areas: A Case Study of Sosnowiec-Poland.

Sustainable development policy emphasizes, among other things, the role of green areas in urban space. This remark applies in particular to post-industrial and post-mining cities. One of the elements of shaping the sustainable development of post-mining cities is that forests are often anthropogenic forest ecosystems growing in previously mining areas, one of the most characteristic elements of their spatial development. This article examines the role of urban forests in the post-mining area in Sosnowiec, located in the core of the Katowice conurbation in southern Poland. This article aimed to show the social perception of forests in post-mining areas among the local community and the features of urban forests. The social dimension of the interaction between humans and the environment is related to the issue of urban planning. Research was implemented based on quantitative, qualitative (CATI survey), and cartographic methods. The results indicate the significant role of forests in post-mining areas depending on their location in the settlement areas in a post-industrial city. The research emphasizes that residents perceive forests in post-mining areas of cities as an essential and expected recreational space. Notably, half of them do not see any threats therein. It is also expected that these areas will be better developed for recreational purposes in the future.

Vegetation and Environmental Changes on Contaminated Soil Formed on Waste from an Historic Zn-Pb Ore-Washing Plant.

Post-mining waste from Zn-Pb ore exploitation undergoes processes of spontaneous succession and changes in soil chemical composition. The Zakawie area was industrially transformed by historical mining activity, ore enrichment, and the metallurgical processing of Zn-Pb ore. The subject of the study was to analyse the rate of vegetation succession (from 1999 to 2019), soil chemistry, and the relationships between them in an anthropogenic habitat with high concentrations of potentially toxic metals. Ecological and geochemical studies were carried out in an area contaminated with waste from a disused Zn-Pb ore-washing plant. Between 1999 and 2019, the transformation of grassland and meadow vegetation into scrub and forest-grassland communities was observed. This transformation led to a decrease in the area of Molinietum caeruleae meadow (from 25.8% in 1999 to 10.7% in 2019), whose place was taken by Prunus spinosa and Rhamnus cathartica. The community of xerothermic limestone grasslands completely disappeared, being replaced in favour of the Diantho-Armerietum and Prunus spinosa community. In this period, the share of lifeforms of plants and species composition (46 and 60, respectively) also changed. The Shannon and Simpson biodiversity index reached high values in the second investigation period, and it was 0.893 and 0.86, respectively. The anthrosols had a high content of Zn-85,360 mg kg-1, Pb-28,300 mg kg-1, Cd-340 mg kg-1, and As-1200 mg kg-1. Carbonates, clay minerals, and fe-oxides are predominant in the mineral composition of the rhizosphere; the metal-bearing phases are stable; and hardly soluble minerals include smithsonite, cerussite, monheimite, hemimorphite, and oxides of Fe and Fe-Mn. Mineralisation/crust processes formed on the epidermis, and their influences on root development were found. Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy studies on rhizosphere soil components provide information on the type of minerals and their susceptibility to heavy metals release. The identification of some biotic and mineral structures in rhizospheres can be an interesting source of information on pedogenic processes identified in back-scattered electron images.

Vegetation- and Environmental Changes on Non-Reclaimed Spoil Heaps in Southern Poland.

The study focused on the changes in vegetation and soils on an undeveloped area of coal mine spoil heaps. The process of vegetation changes was evaluated on the basis of historical cartographic materials and fieldwork. Changes of vegetation in nearly 200 years are presented herein. The main purpose of this study is to present an analysis of spatio-temporal changes in vegetation and their influence on soil features. The diversity of ecological species in terms of habitat requirements, tendency of hornbeam communities formation, and the relationship between forest communities and soil features was found. The basic soil properties were examined under selected plant communities (pH, Corg, Nt), available forms of elements (P, K, Mg), and as plant nutrients and heavy metal occurrence (Fe, Zn, Mn, Co, Cd, Pb, Sr, Cr, Cu). The soil organic carbon (Corg) content varied from 3.17 ± 0.007% to 17.7 ± 0.21% and significant differences were observed between sites. The highest total nitrogen (Nt) content was recorded in the soils of the sites that were represented by Populus-Betula stands (0.60 ± 0.01%). Soil acidity (pH) varied greatly, ranging from acidic (pH = 4.1) to weakly acidic (pH = 5.9). The highest value for Mgavail (205.43 ± 0.5 mg·kg-1) was noted in the soils under Calamagrostis epegijos (L.) Roth community and for Pavail (184.07 ± 3.77) and Kavail (346.19 ± 2.92 mg·kg-1) under the Quercus-Pinus stand. On all sites, Zn was a dominant element and its concentration ranged from 526.1 to 1060.4 mg·kg-1. Obtained results show how important it is to study the issue of vegetation changes and the formation of the landscape within an industrial city. The described results are important for the management of urban greening issues. Human influence on the disintegration and development of the natural environment is clearly visible. Due to the diversity of former mining areas and their time of creation, the studied area is one of the most important experimental areas for the determination link between vegetation and soil.

Nitrates and phosphates in cave waters of Kraków-Czestochowa Upland, southern Poland.

The paper presents the varied presence of nitrates and phosphates in water from caves located in Czestochowa and Kraków, in urban, strongly anthropogenic conditions, representing the vadose zone of the fissure-karstic-porous massif of Upper Jurassic limestones. Hydrochemical research was carried out by the authors in the Cave on the Stone in Czestochowa in 2012-2015, in caves of the Zakrzówek horst from 1996 to 2002, and in the Dragon's Cave by the research team of J. Motyka in 1995-1998. A number of NO3 and PO4 measurements were performed in waters sampled at these research sites: 20 measurements each of NO3 and PO4 at the Cave on the Stone, 228 of NO3 and 422 of PO4 at Zakrzówek, and 19 each of NO3 and PO4 at the Dragon's Cave. To assess the quality aspect of N and P compounds in waters from the Cave on the Stone, the results of geochemical modelling were processed using PHREEQC software. In cave waters, the oxidised form of nitrogen NO3- predominates; in surface waters in the vicinity, unoxidised forms prevail: NH4+, NH3, and NH4SO4-. Among phosphorus speciations, dissolved forms are dominant: HPO42-, H2PO4-, and the insoluble form CaHPO4; in surface waters, these forms are practically absent. Transformations of water chemistry in 'urban' caves, often centuries old, manifest themselves in, inter alia, the occurrence of multi-ionic waters, including seasonal variations and extremely diversified concentrations, with very high concentrations in subpopulations of NO3 (0.2-485 mg dm-3) and P (0.02-6.87 mg dm-3). The common presence of NO3 in waters of the phreatic zone of the Czestochowa Upland, an area developed in an agricultural direction, is documented by, inter alia, the exploitation of intakes supplying the city of Czestochowa (10-57 mg dm-3, 2011) and crenological studies from 2008 to 2015 (NO3, 2-58 mg dm-3), at simultaneously low phosphate concentrations (PO4, 0.02-0.24 mg dm-3).